Running Head: UNEMPLOYMENT TRENDS IN THE UNITED STATES

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Introduction

Unemployment is the second macroeconomic problem or crisis from inflation globally (Valletta, 2011). Usually, inflation causes economic recession while unemployment is a healthy factor towards economic boom. Rising trends in unemployment levels in the United States is a macroeconomic crisis that needs to be addressed appropriately. An unemployed person is a person looking for work actively and he/she is available to work. Unemployment refers to an economic condition where people have no jobs, have actively searched for work in the last one month, and they are presently unoccupied and are available for work. In United States, people laid off for work and are waiting to be called back to work are also counted as unemployed. Unemployment trends are calling for strategies to counteract the coming great economic depression. Unemployment during economic downturn is sometimes referred by economists as healthy for economic recovery. Unemployment is costly to the economy. The difficult experience is solved by economic recovery. To estimate the impacts caused by unemployment United States labor bureau of statistics determine changes in economic indicators. Common economic indicators include consumer price index, unemployment cost index, employment situation factor, producer’s price index, real earnings, and the United States imports and exports prices index.  The unemployment levels usually affect the key indicators such as the producer’s index and the consumer’s index. All these indicators are collected through random household surveys data throughout the country. Unemployment causes people to spend less causing recession. The condition contributes to reduced business revenues consequently leading to reduction in production output.

Unemployment trends

United State unemployment implies the number of people in percentage that are not employed in a period of four weeks. According to bureau labor of statistics (2011), unemployment levels in the country average 5.7 percent. Year 1982 is the highly recorded percentage level of 10.80, and lowly level recorded in history is 2.50 percent (Trading economics, 2010). Labor force in the country is sum of all unemployed citizen but looking for work and the employed. Non-labor force is the category of citizens serving in military, individuals institutionalized and the category not looking for jobs. Research studies conclude that the United States labor force has being decreasing from 1982 to present year. Decreasing in unemployment trends were affected by the recession periods especially 2007-recession period. As with most of the Atlantic and Caribbean countries, unemployment rates in the United States have been decreasing except in 2007 when it rose up due to recession. For example from 2001 unemployment level has being fluctuating but has never been more than 6.5% (Bureau labor of statistics, April 2011). According to Valletta (2011), “researchers have proposed explanations for rising duration based on the changing composition of the labor force and the unemployment pool and increased search duration as a response to widening residual wage inequality”. Conditions of unemployment during the past severe depression periods have being long. This condition is raised by the increase in the labor force that is lower than the exit rate of unemployed from the unemployment pool. Valletta (2011), argue that unemployment rates and duration period in the United States was worst experienced in 2007. The unemployment duration in this period reached rates of recession in the year 1981 to 1982. Further, he indicates that the relationship of the unemployment rate and the duration are evident for the past three decades.  Changes of unemployment duration are affected by other factors such as the wages rates, skills advancement, technological levels and the labor market dynamics. The factors fail to match with the increasing change in welfare.

Financial crisis of 2007 hit strongly the United States labor markets. For example, the country’s unemployment rate doubled from 5 percent on December 2007 to 10% in the year 2009. The rate reduced significantly in the year 2010. Global financial crisis caused regional imbalances affecting the movement of labor force and wage rate dynamics. Financial crisis hit hard the country’s levels of production, and consumption. Different categories of groups of people in United States were affected differently by the unemployment caused during financial crisis phase.

United States unemployment levels, durations and rates show many differences compared to other European or American countries. Especially in the year 1982 where there was a global economic downturn, United States experienced the hardest hit, longest depression and highest unemployment rate. Further, unemployment rates in United States were higher than European countries in the Second World War and have decreased considerably for the past three decades. Presently, according to Bureau labor of statistics, (2011) unemployment rates declined in the year 2010 and the first quarter of 2011. All the thirty-four states recorded a significant decrease in unemployment levels (Bureau labor of statistics, 2011). Possibly the decline in unemployment rates for the last decade can be attributed to the increase in productivity and output. Similarly, the wage rates behaviors and the relative employment rates in the country have a positive relationship. Wage rate increases with increase in productivity, increasing employments and subsequently decreasing the unemployment level.

Conclusion

Unemployment reflects the number of citizens unemployed and remains without work for a period of four weeks and they are active job seekers.  Unemployment levels recorded today nevertheless differs significantly to levels recorded in the past years. Unemployment rates and duration rose shapely in the country following the year of 2007 financial crisis. The country’s unemployment trends in the recession or financial catastrophe can be controlled by strategizing short-term compensation programs.

 

 

References

Bureau labor of statistics (2011). Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. Retrieved from http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS14000000

Bureau labor of statistics (2011). Regional and State Employment and Unemployment-March 2011. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/laus.pdf

Trading economics (2010).United States Unemployment Rate. Retrieved from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/united-states/unemployment-rate

Valletta, R. G. (2011). Rising Unemployment Duration in the United States: Composition or Behavior? Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. San Francisco. Retrieved from http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~mchinn/RV_duration_4-17-11.pdf

 

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Wonhee Anne Joh, Heart of the Cross, Intro

            When the word cross is mentioned in theology, most people view it as a place where there is suffering and sacrifice, as it was used in crucifying of Jesus. However, some critiques from a feministic view tend to differ by arguing that it was a sign of love. Joh argues that it is a place of love, and in an unexpected way, God and man are brought together by the cross. In postcolonial Christology, the cross is seen as working all together to bring reverence to danger of oppressive authorities. Joh uses the Jeong concept of Korea to come up with a theology that concentrates on love, politics, and one that is feministic, but at the same time, manages to appreciate the cross as a place of suffering.

In Korea, interpersonal relationships that develop feelings of caring, fondness, togetherness among the people are referred to as Jeong. It is an emotional feeling of relations among people, similar to love but with differences. While love should be between two people, a man and a woman, Jeong suggests relationships between individuals without laying emphasis on gender. Jeong suggests a strong bond that is not broken. It also means a bond towards something or an object that one feels attached to and they are bound to love it forever, and can die for it. In the practice of postcolonial Christology, Jeong is used to refer to the bond among people that cannot be broken. It is said to develop over time and once it develops, no matter what the circumstances are, it is not supposed to be broken.

On the other hand, Han is the feeling of resentment, or bitterness, where a person has strong feelings against injustice, hopelessness and a feeling of unsettled anger towards someone or something that makes one boil with range and have a feeling of wanting to seek vengeance, in order to make something that they feel is wrong into right. From the postcolonial Christology, this could mean the other side of the cross, which is suffering and pain. According to Joh, Jeong and Han go hand-in-hand, just as love and hate go hand-in-hand as opposite of each other. According to her, Jeong is empathy, solidarity, rationality and compassion, while Han is the feeling of a broken heart, an unusual emotional wound, world distress and personal disaffection. She compares the cross to these two concepts, where it plays a dissident effect, and at the same time puts relevance of the cross to the oppressive powers.

Han, in the Korean culture takes several forms, which are related, but efferent in cause or what brings it about. The first form of Han is the violation of Jeong. Considering that Jeong is loyal to the bond between people, for instance, a man and a wife, when this bond is violated, or betrayal occurs, one develops Han, which is the resentment feeling of helplessness and anger. The other form of Han occurs when disasters occur, whether natural or caused by man, where the people feel a loss. This is perceived in their emotions and it can lead to Han, where the people feel that they have been alienated by nature, or by those who cause the disaster and the anger creeps in and develops Han. The third form of Han is experienced at national level, where the people feel victimized and anger arises from such victimization, hence, resulting to Han. It is important to note that Han develops into Hwabyung, which is a condition that causes trauma, or one to develop medical conditions, that could lead to death.

Joh draws a relationship between Jeong and Han, where she implies that Jeong is the primary feeling of attachment to somebody, and Han only exists where Jeong exists, as it happens after the attachment or the bond between the people has been broken, where one is betrayed and feelings of anger arise. According to her, Jeong and Han are just two different sides from the same heart. She draws a relationship where she suggests that Jeong and Han exist as the two sides of the oppressed and the oppressor, while revealing the cross as a subversive power, in which our attachment can be questioned, and at the same time, it can transform these feelings. The relationship between the two is that they act as opposites of each other, and when Jeong, is violated, the other occurs.

 

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The Right and Wrong in the Movie “The Core” and its Relationship to Geology

            The movie “The Core” is a science fiction and disaster movie created in 2003. It is related to geology because it is concerned with the earth’s structure and the materials, which make the earth. The movie shows different scientists as they try to restart the earth’s outer core, which has stopped rotating. In order to restart the rotations, the scientists plan to drill through the earth’s crust so that they can set off the nuclear bombs, which will then restart the core’s rotation. In this movie, the directors tried to present accurate facts concerning the earth, but like in most science related movies, they did not take the initiative to research on all the geological and physical facts involved.

The earth’s interior surface is divided into three main spheres. The crust is thin and brittle, mantle, which forms the largest part of the earth’s volume, and the core, which is at the center of the earth and it forms 15% of the earth’s volume. The outer core is a liquid while the inner core is a solid. The movie also talks of the crust, which, at 1% is the thinnest sphere of the earth’s surface. These details are explained in the movie in a detailed way. It is correct that humans have drilled the crust for about ten miles. However, no one has been able to drill up to the mantle and no one knows what is to be expected. What many people are clear on is that there is an increase of pressure and temperature as one goes down the earth’s surface. In the movie, they estimate that they have to dig for at least two thousand miles before they reach the earth’s core. Pressure and heat increase as one digs deeper into the earth’s surface. The fluid core of the earth is always moving and it is driven by the extreme temperatures. The earth has a magnetic field, which is caused by the rotation of the outer core. In the movie, Professor Keyes takes the time to explain about the earth’s rotation, the magnetic field and the dynamo effect that is produced inside the earth.

The movie has many wrongs in it and the directors should have been more careful to conduct proper research. It is estimated that the heat beneath the earth’s surface is close to that of the sun. No device has of yet been invented which would be able to withstand such extreme temperatures. In the movie, they create some kind of space suits, which apparently allows them to withstand the extreme temperatures. They design a drilling craft, which drills into the surface of the earth and even penetrates the mantle. This is despite the fact that the mantle is the thickest of the three spheres and constitutes the largest volume of the earth’s interior surface. The liquid core has never stopped rotating as it has been depicted in the movie. The spinning core is not the only thing that causes the earth’s magnetic field. The outer liquid core has convection currents, which enable it to rotate, and they are responsible for the magnetic field.

In the movie, one of the actor scientists reveals that something made by a human has been the cause of the stuck rotation. It is quite impossible for this to have happened since in the first place, there is no one who has been able to go that far into the earth’s interior. The actors constantly refer to the earth as having an electromagnetic field instead of a magnetic field. One of the major wrongs that can be seen in the movie is the supposed element, which can be able to withstand the extreme heat and pressure. In the movie, they come up with an element called unobtainium, which is supposed to get stronger as more heat and pressure are applied to it. They use this element to build the ship, which will take them to the interior, and they build their spacesuits with it. This material, as they agree cannot be obtained. They have therefore failed to show how they acquire it and use it. In the movie, they show that the earth’s magnetic field would shut down within a year yet this is not true. Most scientists agree that it would take several hundred years for the magnetic field to shut down.

 

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Edward Hopper: “Nighthawks”

Introduction

Edward Hopper’s “Nighthawks” is a painting that was done in the year 1942. Hopper was famous for his oil paintings but was also good as a water colorist. “Nighthawks” is considered as one of his famous works as well as the most recognized in America. Hopper began painting it after the Pearl Harbor attack by the Japanese that occurred on December 7 1941. There was a feeling of gloominess all over the country, which is clearly expressed in the artwork. It portrays people sited at a diner late at night. There are four people: two are a couple, the other sitted showing his back to the viewer is alone and the diner attendant. In the painting the street right outside the diner is empty and the people inside seem lonely and lost in their thoughts. Edward Hopper’s artwork is clearly figurative. He uses the term “Nighthawk” to portray someone who stays up late. The scene was inspired by a diner in Greenwich Village; his home neighborhood in Manhattan. The painting pays attention to the interior and human placement in accurate balance with the environment. The use of geometrical shapes, lines, texture and vibrant colors have made the masterpiece truly remarkable.

Lines

Lines in the painting are clearly shown, the light from the diner reflects onto the next building diagonally. The frames joining the diner mirrors are straight. The posts placed at the entrance of the other building are parallel. The corner of the diner and the edge of the roof is composed of a curve line. The stools are arranged in a line parallel to the triangle counter. The lines are correctly drawn as per the object described. However, it is the job of the architect to decide and communicate which attributes need to be emphasized in order to achieve the overarching mission of a solution.

Shapes

Several shapes are highlighted. They compose of circles, triangles and rectangles. The corner of the diner is curved: curved glass connecting the large stretch to the two sides. The stools inside the diner are round in shape. Again taking a closer look at the painting, there is no visible door to the diner detecting imprisonment. The counter also takes the shape of a triangle trapping the attendants within the counter area. Rectangles are used; the windows and doors of the nearby building are box in shape. The image placed on the counter of the building adjacent to the diner has an organic shape. The metallic vessels at the far end of the dinner have a cylindrical shape. Urban architecture was a major aspect in his work; he was fascinated by the American urban scene full of hideous beauty, fascinating roofs and delicate harmonies of fainted paint.

The effective use of light and shadow to create mood is also highlighted. The diners harsh light separates it from the dark night enhancing subtle emotion and mood. The light hides nothing, it reflects even onto the buildings across the streets. Part of the window overlaps the glass of the buildings on the left. Inside, the light reflects onto the metal tanks placed at the far right side of the diner, this brightens the scene and adds mood to the painting. His use of color has been compared to the cinematography of a few films. As he said “the vertical and diagonal bands of color and sharp electrical shadows create concise and intense drama in the night…Combining subject matter with a powerful arrangement, the composition is pure enough to approach an almost conceptual sensibility, yet layered with a poetic meaning for the observer.” The viewpoint is cinematic as if the viewer were approaching the restaurant.

 

Texture

Texture is the feel of the canvas. “Nighthawks” has a simulated texture because it appears real. The circular shaped diner and the triangle shaped counter have a simulated texture. The whole painting comes into sight as simulated; it looks as if it is a photograph. The people give the impression of being real and the location seems authentic. The feel of the drawing is smooth. The texture has not been added an artificial material but is portrayed as real. . The painter portrayed the modern urban life as empty, denying that he deliberate wanted to express it as such.

Colour

The diner interior is brilliant, made of brown cherry wood counters surrounded with stools expressing simplicity. At the base of the seamless glass, brilliant streaks of jade green tiles are placed three-quarter way. The color of the tiles is dull creating a boring mood in the restaurant. The counter fronts have no merchandise in them intensifying the general seediness of the scene. The color of the building across is brown. Edward’s “Nighthawks” work of art contrasts the sleek modern diner whose glass windows appear seamless and transparent with the 19^th century brick building beside the restaurant. The walls of the diner have a bright cream color that brightens the entire room, creating a warmer feel; in addition to the cream color is the yellow color also adding life to the artwork.

Conclusion

Human placement, There are four people in the diner; none seems vivacious, even the couple do not seem to communicate. Loneliness is clearly highlighted in the artwork though the counterman seems to be having a few words with the man facing him. The man showing us his back is sitted at the far end alone and lonely, he seems trapped in the triangle shaped counter. Again, there are large sitting spaces that are unoccupied. The items viewed in the diner- the coffee mugs, the saltshakers and napkin holders are poignant symbols of separation, they are placed at different locations. Secondly, there are no other customers even the passers by; no one is walking on the streets. Inside the diner, the temperature is understood as warm because no coats are evident; the woman is in a short-sleeved blouse. The storey across the street appears to have open windows. The people are also geometrically represented just like the architecture drawn in the painting.

. Hopper’s works clearly lacked the urban aspect; there was no presence of cars, passersby and other artifacts. The restaurant could have been any ordinary one; it was simply painted, it did not have an exception. The painter was most interested in letting the architectural concept convey his impressions. His desire to exteriorize his real nature was stronger than his personal control thus; he painted “Nighthawks” to express his loneliness. Edward Hopper was and still is a recognized painter worldwide. Many artists take after him; they have produced works that are similar to his, from films like “Pennies from Heaven” and the “End of Violence”. Paintings have also been produced. It has been widely referenced in the popular culture. Versions of the painting have appeared on t-shirts, greeting cards, on posters, advertisements and on comic books. Paintings are a form of communication; they convey messages that cannot be spoken. Edward Hopper’s painting was truly remarkable.

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Rogerian Argument

Introduction

The theme of oppression culminating into a permanent impartation of liberation is jointly covered in Rich’s Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers, Sexton’s Cinderella, Huxley’s Time and the Machine and Grimm’s Cinderella. Oppression has been a very significant topic in the world as traced from the early societies and spilling into the present as evidenced by the increased number of lobby factions and human rights towards the creation of an equitable global society marked with an optimal practice and sustenance of personal freedom. The topic therefore bears a high level of significance within the contemporary society in that it addresses various levels and aspects of oppression, both within the micro and macro perspectives, which most individuals tend to identify with and the best way that such can be overcome. Despite the oppression one may be facing within a given situation personal resolution to accord change within the covers the most significant role of freedom realization, with other players of factors constituting to a minor role.

Body A

Prior to this realization, I held the position that personal effort being limited by the individual aspect only managed a small proportion of effort that would be rendered as trivial within a broad setting. A number of individuals too share within the same view, as noted currently within the concepts of group dynamics that emphasizes on synergy towards the realization of noteworthy changes in a given situation. Sexton’s Cinderella bears this perspective as evidenced by the young girl’s plight. Cinderella’s mother faces her demise with the daughter being very young and therefore in need of protection. The dying mother talks to her daughter and promises to accord her help in all situations (Gwynn 1027). With the introduction of the stepmother and two stepsisters, the three women form an alliance in repressing Cinderella and she complies with the maltreatment due to her view that her personal opposition against the other three would be inconsequential.

Cinderella upon the escalation of the subjugation with the inclusion of her father finds refuge on her mother’s grave through the young dove. The dove provides everything that Cinderella needs and in this manner, she learns to cope with the tyranny. The ball scene amplifies this view after she succeeds in the assessment that is to offer her chance to the prince’s ball. Cinderella wins and is unable to attend her desired dance because of her stepmother. Grimm and Wilhelm’s Cinderella bearing a similar story line amplifies Sexton’s position by noting that the decision was a joint one made by her “step-mother…and…her two proud daughters” (3). The evil mother and her two daughters exhibit a high level of group work even in all their scheming strategies as majorly indicated in the toe and heel slashing plants to fit within Cinderella’s shoe. Cinderella on the other hand also relies on group work to accomplish her various challenges like the lentil and rice gathering assignment, and her dressing and undressing upon her attendance of the parties. Cinderella’s doves aid her in revealing the stepsisters and their mother’s evil scheme to the prince in duping their way into marriage.

Body B

However, most individual commonly tend to overrule the importance of personal efforts as a contributing factor even in group settings since lack of a single individual would lead to a notable impact, noted in direct terms within the groups and indirectly with regard to the setting. For instance, by reverting to the preceding examples, Cinderella’s freedom and help from the doves is based on her effort to acquire the hazel branch, planting and cultivation until its maturity in a manner that provides an abode to the birds that become her greatest helpers. The inference therefore accorded in the situation would be summarized by the conditional view that, had Cinderella not taken her private initiative in the tree planting, then the doves would lack a residing place and therefore look for alternative shelter in other areas. Consequently, Cinderella would have lacked the amount of help that the birds accord her. It therefore follows that, the individual effort although ranked as a small one tends to be a primary element in the overall synergy created in the whole group.

Rich succinctly discusses the importance of personal choices as the initial process of activating one’s liberation from subjugation in Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers. The protagonist in this narrative creates an illusion within her natural setting to aid her with her oppressive marriage within the chauvinistic society she resides in. The imagery of the fearless tigers and “Aunt Jennifer’s fingers fluttering through the wool” (Khanna and Gangal 5) offers a precise depiction of the dominance attributed to the males and the fearful subjugation of the women. Perhaps due to violent tendencies exhibited by the men just like cruel nature of the tigers. The ring on Aunt Jennifer’s hand is described as heavy, being indicative of the repression she faces within her marriage. Sadly, the protagonist dies within her oppressed state due to her failure in enforcing her personal choice in initiating her liberation. Huxley bears the same perspective by focusing on the various single processes required to create a finished service or product. For instance, within the factory setting, the author focuses on the input of the artisan (Huxley 67).

Body C

Having outlined the two perspectives in the role of liberation in oppressive instances, it is evident that both standpoints have an inverse relationship with each being dependent on the other. Liberalization however is noted to begin with a personal initiative towards the attainment of freedom. For instance, in Aunt Jennifer’s case, had she been accorded outside help as in the case of Cinderella, the initiative though well intended would have failed unless she would admit her problem and the need for assistance. As the author notes, “the tigers in the panel that she made will go prancing, proud and unafraid” (Khanna and Gangal 11-12). This amplifies the frustration that secondary assistance is treated to in cases where individuals have tried to offer aid to people that have not reached the realization of their personal role in liberalization. Just like Aunt Jennifer, their oppressions persist in a strong manner as reflected even in death.

Secondary help takes a minor role in overcoming oppression based solely on private choice. Various disciplines like psychology, medicine, corrective faculties like prisons and rehabilitation centers revolve around the same argument. Oppression affects an individual’s decisions and broadly their freedom as noted in cases like drug addictions. However, unless the affected individual comes to an individual realization that they require help, the efforts of third parties would only be rendered as obsolete. Therefore, acceptance from the drug addict about their condition would serve as a primary role in the recovery process while the medical attendants would accord the secondary (complementary) aid towards the recovery process.

Conclusion

In conclusion, both personal and third party initiatives are necessary towards overcoming the issue of oppression but higher preference and weight should be placed on the former perspective as the main determinant within the liberation process. Even within the contemporary society, group settings accord a level of equity to every member in terms of idea presentations and contributions to create a healthy personal and overall group growth. However, group development cannot be realized without personal advancements.

 

Works Cited

Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. Grimm’s Fairy Tales: Cinderella. 1812. Web. 27 April 2011. < http://www.pinkmonkey.com/dl/library1/story012.pdf >.

Gwynn, R. Literature: a pocket anthology. Pearson/Longman, 2005. Print.

Huxley, Aldous. The olive tree. Harper & Brothers, 2009. Print.

Khanna, Kiran and Gangal, K. English Core. New Delhi: Rachna Sagar Pvt. Ltd.

 

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Why do people collect art?

Many individuals assemble and exhibit impressive art designs from their lives. Sometimes individuals may present their collections to the museums for professional care and accessibility to everybody. People unlike museums have a limit on what can be collected. Their collections consist of past and present items that are determined by a certain feature. The collection may be of military items, manufactured articles of a certain locality, holiday souvenirs, precious stones, prehistoric remains, fossils and many others. Art has a way of rekindling and preserving memories making it preferred by people who are collectors.

First, some people may collect art for an investment while others for venture purposes. Art collections possess quality of increasing in value as time passes. The primary reason that may make people to purchase for art is due to enjoyment. They enjoy purchasing arts that will give them pleasure for the years to come. Unlike other things such as cars or clothes, art collections never corrode or become outdated. If one is purchasing art it is advisable to consider the aesthetic value attached and carried into the future.

Secondly, it is a chance to sharpen and expand individual’s horizons where individuals who collect art get an opportunity to increase their knowledge on art. As they acquire collection experience they develop a keener eye and better taste for artwork. This experience is gained through increased exposure to exhibitions and art collections where the collector’s participation is seen in seeking advice and asking questions about art: they end up sharpening their sphere on art.

Earning a living is an additional motivator for art collection.  Fine art can be bought then resold since it can hold value as an asset. The money earned from art collection helps individuals to purchase alternative things such as clothes, foods and even pay rent. Museums collect art because it is a source of revenue to the government. Through purchases, which one makes to art collections, it indicates one appreciates their good work.

People collect art additionally because of its aesthetic value. Some individuals may love to decorate their houses with fine arts. They give reasons that by loving art, it makes them express their tastes. One of the reasons of loving art is because they make their houses to appear better through decorations of art. There are some homes where people decorate their buildings using precious stones because they love the wall appearance resultant. They may up instilling that spirit to others who may be influenced to purchase art collections for their homes.

It gives an individual a chance to scrutinize many artworks. Collecting art helps an individual to keep his or her galleries open thus getting an opportunity to scrutinize many arts. Some commercial galleries have collections of art that attracts many people. They prosper depending on how great support they obtain from individuals. They provide good artwork thus make individuals to appreciate their art collections thus purchase for more art designs. Commercial galleries display many art collections thus, whenever people pass near, they get a chance to scrutinize a variety of art designs.

Lastly, some people may want to become art collectors. One cannot start purchasing for example, paintings from prominent painters and consider themselves as art collectors. Individuals start collecting art due to varied reasons and some do it without recognizing that they have colleted art. The important thing that individuals who what to become art collector do is that they go to museums and observe art collections. They eventually get motivated due to varieties of artwork in the museums thus end up becoming art collectors.

 

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Overview

 

Chick-fil-A (CFA) is one of America’s largest and most successful privately-owned chains of restaurants and comes in third in the nation for its quick service, with over 1,000 locations in thirty-four states, and in South Africa. The Atlanta- based Chick-fil-A is duly famed for its fried chicken sandwich masterpiece, and serves a wide range of nutritious foods in drive-through outlets, malls, and freestanding units. In 2009, their sales attained more than $3 billion. This success has been observed due to their main objective of being the best quick-service restaurant in America, and to gratify every customer. Chick-fil-A has adhered to the business values of focusing on quality, listening to the customer, and focusing on getting better before getting bigger, these rules have become imperative to meeting their main objective. The success at CFA also incorporates the outstanding leadership skills and values, which has been a significant factor over the years.

Chick-fil-A was founded in 1964 by Samuel Truett Cathy, a devout Southern Baptist. He however opened his first restaurant called the ‘’Dwarf Grill’’ in 1946, and he had a mixed clientele that shaped the racial and economic environment of the Hapeville area, where the Grill was located. The Grill restaurant was later renamed as the’’ Dwarf House’’. The first Chick-fil-A restaurant was therefore opened in 1967, from the inspiration of the Grill’s success, he opened it to influence and inspire both customers and employees. In running the company’s affairs Cathy was helped by Jim Collins who became the company’s president. Collins was well versed in food service and helped Cathy in designing the ‘’Dwarf House’’, in addition, Cathy was also drawn to Collins due to their belief in Christian living. The company’s independency saw Eric Kuchan operating the franchise in Christiansburg, Virginia.  Due to Cathy’s Christian faith, the Chick-fil-A chain of restaurants practices a ‘’Closed-on-Sunday’’ policy, whereby the restaurants are closed on Sundays. This is in testament to Cathy’s faith in God and it also offers all his employees a time relax, catch up with family, and mainly to set aside time to worship God. In relation to this, the company’s corporate purpose has been signified by embracing the statutes of being a faithful steward by glorifying God will all that is assigned unto us, and having a positive impact on all in contact with Chick-fil-A. This policy has also been upheld until today by Dan Cathy, the son of Truett Cathy, who later on became the company’s CEO (Ratliffe, n.d.). This policy and attitude has influenced customers’ to warm up to the company. Cathy’s faith is visionary to the company’s leadership structure and culture, and have gone ahead to reward any employee who exemplifies such values.

 

Leadership Culture

The CFA operators are selected from a diverse vocational and leadership background that has a proven track record of business leadership. To be considered, all potential operators must meet the company’s preliminary set criterion that exemplifies them to complete an Operator’s application form. Candidates have also been selected through nation-wide exhibitors.  The potential operators undergo through an extensive and intensive training program that includes development courses on and any other franchise support prior to fully handling the franchise’s challenging operations. Potential operators are also required to be free from any other active business undertakings for the purpose of being dedicated and working full time for the company. Chick-fil-A also has scholarship opportunities for its top managers that will progress their leadership and management skills, and in so doing it brings effectiveness and quality to the company from the top level.

Chick-fil-A also holds an occasional seminar that brings the company’s top leadership together with the rest of the other employees for bonding purposes. The company believes in the Christian daily living that includes respect and service to all (Ratliffe,n.d.). This social interaction brings unity in the work place and interchangeably improves respect given to employees from the leadership level. Issues are aired out and solutions are suggested from any company employee and this makes every employee feel like being part of the company. Also through local and international tours and ventures, the Chick-fil-A leadership and employees have taken part in community projects and charity and this has historically connected the community with the company.

 

Analysis

Chick-fil-A represents the American dream theory, culture, and vision which were held by one man through support of various people who helped see the dream blossom. Although Cathy started out small, he has shown that patience pays and his success did not cloud this Christian background, but he rather upheld it to the entire world The Company’s closed-on-Sunday policy has gone well with the community and offered the company a high caliber of people who give relevant priority to this policy.  The company has also been consistent in keeping its values such as generosity, religion, and charity activities which has motivated employees and the community around them. The Team Member Scholarship program has helped promote education and creativity among employees. Its policies and customer service has made Chick-fil-A more productive, successful, and not just any other chain of restaurants.

 

 

 

References

 

Ratliff, Amy. (n.d.). How has Chick-Fil-A’s Corporate Culture had both a Negative and

 

         Positive Impact on the Company’s Success?. Retrieved from            http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:P6zfj079ZSoJ:pages.cms.k12.nc.us/gems/mich

 

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Introduction

Multiculturalism and Diversity in Criminal Justice is a scenario where there is incorporation of different races, religions, and genders. It is important to have such a set of system since it provides a wide coverage of the people in the society. Having a multicultural society can be beneficial to the society for several reasons. To start with, justice is made to be purer; the meaning of this is that since all the communities are included in this system, the society is likely to treat each other in fairness. The fact that there is mix of different people in the society means that judgment in crime will be passed after considering the cultural relations of the suspects culture, since to some cultures some things may not illegal or bad. Equity is likely to prevail in the society as the judicial system is likely to discus the beliefs of different communities living in the society. Understanding is enhanced through having diversity in the criminal justice system. The fact that people have different experiences due to cultural background they have had in their lives means that they can solve the problems in the society that may be affecting them (Mills, 2009). Due to exposure of different ideas and beliefs, the society every one in the society is likely to become multicultural. By the fact that the attorneys and gets to mix up with different people in their education and through practice of law they gain a cultural outlook.

The classical school theory came about due to the desire of the people to learn what causes death among people. The theory finds is based on the enlightenment of people in Europe, which was caused by science. The main tenet of this theory is that people have the free will to do what is right and what is wrong. One of the strength is that the theory preaches of fairness when administering justice, punishment is exerted to those people who commit crime as a way of deterring them from such involvements. Another strength that is exhibit by the classical theory is that punishment is used to deter people and not a way of oppressing people. In addition, people get the chance to avoid it as they only endure punishment due to their wrong acts. The spirit of equity is also promoted by this theory. The fact that each one is subjected to the same rules means that favor, which brings conflict in the society is avoided. However, the theory also has a weakness, as it is problematic to determine whether a certain punishment that is exerted to an evil doer is sufficient or not. There is no scale of determining the intensity of a crime to determine the punishment that suites it. The classical school theory can be considered as one of the most considerate theories (Schmalleger, 2011). The reasoning behind this is due to the fact that everyone is given a chance to chose the destiny for himself, whether to sin or not, and the repercussions for the same are known.

The benefits on police officers are both individual and communal. They offer communal benefit in the sense that they offer security needed in our societies and also maintain law and order. Police force as a profession is satisfying for people who like experiencing the unexpected every day. Officers also get paid vacations and there is also provision of uniforms and weapons, however, there are dangers that come with this profession. To start with, the pay of the police officers is not desirable. Compared to the work that is done by the police officer, the pay is usually low. There is also the responsibly that comes with the profession, the fact that at times they are called upon to take the life of another human being is hard to some of them, and leads them to having stress. Further, the profession also comes with a lot of stress when handling other people’s problem. It is also not easy to see people die or hurt themselves. Management and command are two reasons that cause the negative altitude that people have on police profession. The fact that police cover up some of the mistakes they do is seen by people as a reason not to take responsibility. There is also the fact that police officers do not like to be told what to do. The actions of the police offices have everything to do with how they are viewed by the public (Wagoner, 2009). The public in the past used to view police officers as brutal individuals who at times acted inhuman. However, in the recent past this perception has changed as police officers have become friendly. My view about the officers has been changed from being negative to a positive one as on many occasions, I have seen policemen acting in a human manner.

Entrapment is caused by induction of a person by a law-enforcing officer to cause the person to be involved in crime, which he would not have done in case he was not induced. The case of Jackson vs. United States is an example of such a scenario where the defendant was acquainted the crime of being involved in child pornography materials. Through this ruling, it was highlighted that as long as you do not have the property you are being charged to deal in your possession, entrapment can be used as a defense. Also evident in this case is the fact that for a case to be considered of entrapment there must be prove that one did not have the intention of having the property in ones possession. The ruling was fair judgment since some people might use some illegal property to frame other people in a bid to put them in jail. The ruling of this case rules that out as one must prove that someone had the intentions of acquiring the property, and he or she has had it as part of the proof of possession. The ruling was also a wake up call for the lawmakers to make laws that do not cause assault to civil liberties.

A bill of right is a list of rights available to the citizens of a given country. The main aim of having this document is to ensure that the rights that are entitled to the people are protected. A bill of rights is usually not subject to changes by the legislature and any changes that need to be incorporated in it are done through a referendum where all the people in a country are incorporated. Another feature it contains is that it forms part of the constitution so changing it requires the same procedures used in changing the constitutions. The aim of older constitutions is protecting the public against negative rights. However, the recent years have seen the recent constitutions highlighting that it is not of importance to observe these rights if the people are starving or are in lack of important needs. United States bill of rights is a collective term that is used to describe ten amendments that are contained in the constitution. The bill of rights limits the powers that the federal government and grants the rights to the general public. The rights that are available to the people include the following: rights to keep and bear arms, freedom of religion, free press, and also freedom of speech. Also among the provision of the bill of rights is the fact that each and everyone is entitled to a fair trial which includes an impartial jury and against double jeopardy (Cuizon, 2009). Though there are twelve proposed to the states, only ten of them were ratified during the 18^th century ratification.

The right of speech in one of the rights contained in the bill of rights that grants the rights of people in United States. The right among others like the right of religion press and assembly are the first ones on the list of the ten amendments. The language used to describe this right is that “congress shall not make a law that a bridge the freedom of speech”. In some cases, the right of speech may not be freely used. For example someone may be denied this righty if he uses it to speak on obscenity in public. Also derived from the case law of Dennis vs. United States it was decided that Dennis was not granted the right of speech under the first amendment since he was aimed at overthrowing the government. The meaning of this is that this right may be withdrawn if it is used to spread evil, since the times when the United States acquired independence there has been continually people who are fighting for this right, whenever the state has tried to deprive it. In future, the right is likely to lack any limitation as people are continually fighting for this freedom.

The decision on Leon case was correct. The exception of the exclusion rule is right in some cases especially the ones that are criminal offences in nature. The decision is what I would consider the end justifying the means. By this, I mean it does not matter how the evidence was acquired so long it is there to incriminate a criminal act, it should be used to ensure criminals do not go scot-free. For whom will it be benefiting if the public cannot be kept safe from criminals who are out to destroy their lives? The ruling sent a precedent that would cause a scare to criminals who may take the benefit offered by a decisional of the court not to incriminate criminals whose evidence was acquire illegally. More problems would have been caused if the ruling would be otherwise as people would do wrongs and use the rule as a difference from any trials that may rise from that.

The difference between jail and prison is that the inmates in prison have been tried and convicted while the ones in jail are awaiting trial. The introduction of private prisons is brought about by the fact that there has been an increase of inmates in the last few decades and the fact that there has been introduction of a free market in the prison system. One of the advantages of having private prison is that it is cost saving. Private companies are able to earn these institutions at a lower cost than they are being run with and that save the movement a lot money. Efficiency in the prison system can be upgraded due to having private firms running them as they aim at making profits. The disadvantages that come with having private prisons include the following. For one, transparency previously enjoyed in public prison is going to be in the declined. The meaning of this that violation of contractual obligation may arise and go unnoticed. In addition, some responsibilities of the government are better done by the government (Zito, 2003). The fact that the government is assigned the responsibility of taking care and control of prisons means that the government should take up its responsibilities and avoid delegating them to other private individuals.

Terrorism is a phenomenon that involves violent struggle between states and other organizations he media is the main campaigners of these wars (Dowler, 2003). Before September 11, United States had fewer enemies that wanted to spread terror in its territory but after the attack United States made more enemies and the list of terrorists had more terrorists. Al-Qaeda is one other terrorist group in the world today. Actually, it is the group that was linked with September 11 attacks. The main aim of this group is to ensure that there is non-foreign influence by other countries on Muslim countries. They also have an aim of creating an Islam caliphate. United Nations is one of the bodies that has been involved in fighting against terrorism. It has done this through counter terrorist activities where it unites countries in an aim of fighting terrorism. United Nations is also helpful in countries that have been victims of attacks. The military are the best-fit candidates of fighting terrorism. The reasoning behind this is due to the responsibilities assigned to them of protecting the country. The army also has a better expertise to fight terrorism than the police do. I believe terrorism is caused by the fact that there is lack of communication between the various groups fighting the war of terrorism; therefore, it should not be a military one but one that involve discussion with these parties.

 

References

Cuizon, G. (2009). Importance of Free Speech . Retrieved April 27, 2011, from What is   Freedom of Speech?: http://www.suite101.com/content/what-is-freedom-of-         speech-a100621

Dowler, K. (2003). Media consumption and public attitudes toward crime and justice:                               The relationship between fear of crime, punitive attitudes, and perceived police   effectiveness. Retrieved April 26, 2009, from    http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol10is2/dowler.html

Mills, N. C. ( 2009). The Role of Diversity in the Criminal Justice System.    Retrieved        April    27, 2011, from             http://www.nacdl.org/public.nsf/01c1e7698280d20385256d0b00789923/12fd55f8            d3ff660b85257643005f5785?OpenDocument

Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the 21st century                 Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Wagoner, C. (2009). Benefits and dangers of police work. Retrieved April   27, 2011, from             http://en.allexperts.com/q/Careers-Police-1531/2009/12/Benefits-dangers-police-    work.htm

Zito, M. (2003). Prison Privatization: Past and Present. Retrieved April 27, 2011, from             http://www.ifpo.org/articlebank/prison_privatization.html

 

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Why Coco Cola Company made to 2010 corporate citizen list

Framework: Business Ethics and Morals Perspective

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Abstract

The 100 best corporate citizens is a company that rank other companies based on publicly available data in categories such as climate change, environmental impacts, philanthropy, financial performance, employees relations, human rights, and governance. Usually employees’ relations and the environmental impacts are given a weighting of 19.5%. Reason behind this is that the listing company believes customers are much concerned about them in a greater degree. Coco Cola Company made to 2010 corporate citizen list and appeared as number 8. This research paper reflects why the Company made to the top list 2010 corporate citizen list. It examines the contribution of the company to the social responsibility, business morals ethics and the entrepreneurship in social responsibility practices. Applicability of social responsibility, business ethics and morals according to Ethical Framework of Waddock, Kohlberg and Carroll are analyzed in depth.

Coca Cola Company Background and Business Summary

            Coca Cola Company was founded by pharmacist John Pemberton in Atlanta, Georgia, 1886 (Stephens, Ford, & Cooper, 2007). The company is the world’s largest global leading manufacture, marketer and distributor of syrups, non-alcoholic beverages. It is has produced over 230 brands sold and distributed on a coca cola trademark in more than 200 countries across the world.  The company gets over 70 percent of its consolidated profits from the globalized market. In addition, it controls and poses ownership interest in and partnerships with bottling and canning operations firms in many countries. Although it is the market leader in the industry, it is faced by many macroeconomic factors such as the Asian crisis and the international financial crises along side others. Despite these challenges the company is geared to success and offering the best to its customers. A strong factor behind the company’s success is its investment and long-term strategy on marketing expertise, bottling systems and the brand name. Coca Cola brand name and loyalty is built from the strong company-customer relationships that exist. In the same way, the relationship is developed due to company’s investment on products, research and development, advertisement band promotions and regularly implore for the customers satisfaction feedback (Stephens, Ford, & Cooper, 2007).

The company has a reputable philanthropic history which enable it be recognized as socially responsible. Apart from its historic success, the company operates under tight competition. It is believed that the company owns approximately 50% of the world’s industry share and with over 80% share in most of the countries. Some of the strong competitors are the National Beverage Company (FIZ), Pepsi Company, Cott Corporation and Cadbury Schweppes plc and associates. Despite competition pressure and challenges in the beverage industry, the company appeared top ten in the 100 best corporate citizens list. All the weighting assigned by the creators, Coca Cola Company shown a positive business ethics, morals and social responsibility applicability in its business operations. Actually, the company is affiliated to committing its resources to building sustainable communities globally, protecting environment, conserve resources and enhance the economic positions in the global community.

Coca Cola Company business ethics and morals

Business managers and leaders are heavily laden a task of promoting and developing business ethics and morals. As suggested by Waddock, nd, every decision made by manager affect either people or the environment affiliated to that organization. Business ethics and morals dictate that organizations must serve the interest of shareholders and other stakeholders such as the community environment, employees, suppliers and potential investors along with others. Coca cola Company since its incorporation through its national or global managers has observed morals and ethics. Business ethics are sum of the organizational; moral values that are recognized as core business management practices.  Coca Cola Company upholds morals such as integrity, trustworthy, creativity and honest. Developing organization’s effective ethics, competitive business practices need to be incorporated in the shared sense of meaning and vision (Waddock, nd). In addition, the company business purpose is connected to the employees and the community not excluding environment.

Coca cola towards sustainability, social responsibility and corporate governance

            As argued by Kohlberg, business morals can follow a particular growth stages hierarchy (Crain, 1985).  As noted in Crain, (1985) Kohlberg suggest stages are from obedience and punishment orientation, individualism and exchange, good interpersonal relationship, maintain social order social contract and individual rights, and application of universal moral principle.  The company morals have grown spontaneously up to a level of making social contracts through social responsibility practices and policies. Similarly, the company observes the rights of employees by providing motivations and favorable workplace. The company’s mission and vision is a clear indication on focus to suitability, social responsibility, and corporate governance. The mission state, “to create value and make difference everywhere it engages its operations” (Coca Cola Company, 2004). Coca Cola Company launched its manifesto in 2004 that indicated sustainable business success and commitment towards sustainable development and conserve environment. The company’s manifesto for sustainability embedded factors such as profits, partners, people, planet, and portfolio to act as pillars to provide sustainable growth (Coca Cola Company, 2004). In addition, Coca Cola Company is dedicated to achieving high standards of corporate governance and business ethics. The company been a multinational corporation, utilize codes and policies given by international community to achieve international best practice of accountability and transparency to promote corporate governance.  Coca Cola Corporations further integrate business ethics and code of ethics to uphold the commitment to business morals and ethics. Honesty and integrity are some of the business ethics applied by employees across the globe. Stakeholders’ responsibility is enhanced and promoted through engaging stakeholders into dialogue. The company’s stakeholders includes, union and non-governmental organizations, employees, bottling partners, customers, governments share owner and the suppliers. The company has instituted various guidance management teams to manage sustainability, provide forums for stakeholders’ participation and advise on the moves towards social responsibility and corporate governance. According to the towards sustainability report, Coca Cola Company, (2004) the company’s framework divide its operations and commitments into four major areas.   These include the market place, work place, environment and community (Coca Cola Company, 2004). This framework was still applicable by 2010.

Based on the framework business ethics and morals of the organization can be summarized as (Coca Cola Company, 2004). First, the company is committed to conduct business in ways to protect and ensure preservation environmental resources. Secondly, the company is committed to invest resources, such as time and human resource to give economic opportunity, improve community life, and advance good will to global communities. Thirdly, the company recognizes workplace human rights, and support motivation, productivity through drivers of business success incentives. Lastly, provision of products that meets the need and satisfaction of customer is vital for business ethics commitment. Again, the business provides compensating opportunities and advantages top suppliers, customers, distributors and local community with NGO’s partnership.

Conclusion

            As evidenced by the discussion, Coca Cola Company is committed to business ethics and empowers its operations towards corporate social responsibility. As market leader, its contribution to the society in regards to business ethics, community empowerment, environment conservation and relations with employees prove significantly great.  For this reason, the company’s 2010 corporate citizen list position 8 is justified.

References

Coca cola Company. (2004). toward sustainability: citizenship report. Retrieved from

Crain, W. C. (1985).Theories of development: concepts and applicationsEdition2, (Chapter 7 Sevenkohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development). Prentice-Hall, ISBN0139136177

http://www.thecoca-colacompany.com/ourcompany/pdf/2004_citizenship_report.pdf

Stephens, R., Ford, W. & Cooper, L. (2007). Coca-Cola Case Study: An Ethics Incident. MaconState College. Retrieved from http://www.marketingpower.com/Community/ARC/gated/Documents/Teaching/AME/AME_Teaching_Materials_2007_08_Ford_Stephens_Cooper.pdf

Waddock, S. (nd). What is the ethical role of the manager? Retrieved from http://pagerankstudio.com/Blog/2011/03/what-is-ethical-role-of-the-manager/

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The Mayans

Introduction

The Mayan were a Mesoamerican civilization that is known for developing written languages, arts and architecture, arithmetic and mathematics and did astronomical studies. They Mayans spread throughout the present day Mexican states such as Chiapas, Tabasco, and in YucatanPeninsula. They also extended to Central American region such as Guatemala and Belize, as presently known. They are best known for their classical civilization in the Mesoamerica period that developed astronomy and calendar systems hieroglyphic writing (Lost Civilizations, N.d.). The Mayans are also highly regarded for their elaborate highly decorated architectural designs of their ceremonial structures such as temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories. They were also known for their agricultural skills, which included clearing tropical rain forests, and building reservoirs for water storage. They were also skilled in weaving and pottery, and engaged in long distances to trade their items with other communities (Lost Civilizations, N.d.).

In current times, the Mayans “are regarded as the inventors of many aspects of Mesoamerican cultures including the first calendar and hieroglyphic writing in the Western hemisphere,” (Lost Civilizations, N.d.). During the classic period, 300-900 AD, major artistic and cultural developments were achieved. It is during this time that the Mayans built an intricate hierarchical social structure that were divided into classes and professions, developed centralized governments headed by a king, and they ruled several territories with clearly marked boundaries (Lost Civilizations, N.d.). At this time, they built more cities such as Tikal, Palenque and Yanxchil. They made much science discoveries such as using zero in mathematics, and their writing was the first in America that expressed all types of thoughts (Lost Civilizations, N.d.). Monumental public works: Architecture

The Mayan architecture dated many years back as its formal settlement started. It was impressive in terms of the structure sizes and design, as well as external decoration, which highlighted its artistic skills. They built their big structures such as temples on top of pyramids, platforms or acropolises. Their public buildings were decorated with sculptures and big stylized masks. However, their interior was not as elaborate as the exterior; it did not have much decoration, and looked bare (Maya and Aztec 2011). Their cities were not built on formal designs as today, but rather, they were built on topographical places where high places were used for observatories and temple, where they carved the limestone to have high pyramids. Despite the lack of a formal plan, the buildings had a common characteristic design, where they all had an open courtyard, terraced pyramids, palaces, shrines, sweat baths and ball courts (Maya and Aztec, 2011).

Most of their structures were built using lime as the primary material, where most of the buildings were constructed on carved rock. The pyramids, some of which were raised platforms with staircases, and a temple at the top, were meant for worship, where people climbed and worship took place here as well as sacrifices. Others were not to be climbed and were considered holy and sacred. Since the pyramids were tall enough to be seen from far in the forest, they were used as landmarks. Some of them served as burial sites for the high ranked people such as the priests. The palaces were built at the center of the cities; they were large and were resided by class of the elites. They were highly decorated, of one story and had small areas and one courtyard in the interior. An acropolis was the name used to refer to any large royal building with several chambers. The cities also had ceremonial platforms that were built of limestone, with a height of about 4 meters, and had alters on them, where ceremonies would be held (Maya and Aztec, 2011).

Mayan architecture ranged from small domestic huts, to large houses, to big intricately designed temples. Their basic structure was the hay huts that majority of the Mayans lived I in, and their walls were made of mud or stone, and then covered with wooden poles. They used limestone, which was easily available, and could be calved into different shapes using harder stone tools since they did not have metallic tools at the time. The difference was only the materials but the roof, which was dome shaped and the style was the same.

Irrigation Systems

As the Mayans population grew after they settled, they needed more food to sustain the population. They came up with techniques that were necessary for food production in the tropical rain forest. Since the topography was sloppy, they built terraces, which were narrow stretches of flattened ground on the sloppy sides. They used embankments of stones on the sides to prevent the soil from being washed away by rain. In the low lands, they built high raised lands and allowed the water from the mountainside to drain into the canals without flooding the area, and farming was easily practiced. The water was controlled, and the deposits from the mountain that were brought in by the water were spread on the high raised ground to create a fertile soil that supported farming. This ensured that corn, bean and melons grew well and sustained the population. These drainage systems were also used as irrigation systems since they could direct the water to where it was required and they controlled the amount that was retained and used.

This was a clear knowledge of irrigation schemes from the Mayans, and considering it was during the early stages of civilization.

Extensive Roads

The Mayans made roads that enabled access to their raised fields of agriculture, and in the cities, they made roads out of the lime, which were well carved as one entered the cities. Since they engaged in long distances, and more so, they had settled from nomadic life, they needed established roads that connected their cities to the rural settlement and to other communities for trade. This was very important for a city that was involved in trading its items and getting others from other communities.

Arithmetic

The Mayans, at their time were able to develop a system of counting that represented very large numbers with the use of only three symbols, which are a dot, a bar, and a shell to represent zero. The Mayans incorporated place value in their counting to be able to write large numbers. The dot represented one, and when they are two, they would represent two, but when they are five, they are put down as a bar, to represent five. Two bars would represent ten. It a dot is put on top of two bars, it represented eleven. This is a bit similar to the statistic mathematics we use today in tallying, where after four vertical bars; you cross with a horizontal one to indicate five.

One difference of the Mayan arithmetic is that their numbers had a base of 20 rather than 10, as in the current numbers. A base of ten will mean that the number before the other will have a value of ten times the number that comes after it. A base of 20 in the Mayan numbers meant that the number that was before had a 20 times value more than the number before it. According to Sean (2010), “That means that every digit in their “tens” place would really be worth 20 each, and each digit in their “hundreds” place would really be worth 400, etc.” For instance, in the ones place value, a dot was one, in the second place value, it would be 20, in the third place value, it would be 400, and in the fourth, it would be 8000.

The numbers were written vertically, for instance, 19 would be written using three horizontal bars with each below the other, to represent 15, and 4 dots on top, to represent four, hence completing it to 19. 20 was written in a different way, where the shell, which represented zero was written below a dot, hence the dot would be considered to be 20 times more than the number below it. While writing 21, one would use two dots with one on top of the other dot. It is important to note that their numbers could include huge values such as 8,421, where one would write four dots below each other, where the bottom most will mean one, the second will mean 20, the third will represent 400, and the last will represent 8000. all the values that we currently use, from 0 to 9, which represent all values, in the Mayan arithmetic, the three symbols, the dot, the zero, and the bar can include all values just the same as the current one, the only difference occurring in the base (Dave, 2009).

Astronomy

The Mayans were also keen astronauts who wee interested in the Zenial Passages. According to Lost Civilization (N.d.), “Their primary interests, in contrast to “western” astronomers, were Zenial Passages when the Sun crossed over the Maya latitudes. On an annual basis the sun travels to its summer solstice point or the latitude of 23-1/3 degrees north.” Considering that, their cities were located on the southern side of this latitude, observing the sun as it passed on this latitude was easy. The sun passed over the latitude twice a year, and it had a specific time, which enabled the Mayans to notice this dates, since at noontime, they would cast no shadows (Public Citizen, N.d.).

According to Local Citizen (N.d.), the Mayans believed that, “…the Earth was flat with four corners. Each corner represented a cardinal direction. Each direction had a color: east red, north white, west black, south yellow. Green was the center.” According to them, at each corner was a jaguar, each with a different color, which supported the sky, and they were called bacabs and each held up the sky (Public Citizen, N.d.). They also believed that the world had thirteen sections each with a god of its own. It is also important to note that the number thirteen was considered special and sacred since it represented the number of gods of the Maya.

The Mayans referred to the Milk Way as the world tree represented by a tall and majestic flowering, the Ceiba. In addition, they called it the Wakah Chan, with Wak meaning six or erect, and Chan meaning four, serpent or sky. It was considered erect when the Sagittarius was over the horizon as this time the Milk Way was regarded as the tree of life (Public Citizen, N.d.). The Mayans gave special attention to the center of the galaxy, where the tree meets the ecliptic, and Kawak monster with a giant forehead with a kin was the major element of the tree. When the Milk Way dominated the sky during the winter, the Mayans called this the “white boned serpent” the ecliptic crosses the  Milk Way again near the constellation of Gemini which is the approximate location of sun during Summer Solstice (Public Citizen, N.d.). The ecliptic was portrayed as a double-headed serpent in the Mayan art.

The Mayans, like other civilizations in the pre-Colombia history, had a profound knowledge of the sky, and it was recorded by the priests who passed them to the other generations. Their astronomical observations resulted to a calendar that was quite accurate in predicting the eclipses that would come, and revolutions of Venus with an error of just a day, in 6000 years (Public Citizen, N.d.). The calendar is divided into sections of 3 million years long in total, with one section being 20 years, the other one is 400 years, 8000, and 158,000 years. In addition, there were subunits for that marked the death and rebirth of the sun and fire. “… Incorporated mathematically contrived Long Count dates and ‘Distance’ numbers into their codices and inscriptions, using these and other techniques, the Maya developed mathematical frameworks through which astronomical and calendrical cycles could be viewed as interconnected parts of a grand astronomical order” (Authentic Maya, 2005). The Mayans used their arithmetic in making their calendar and to put specific predictions which were quite accurate.

One illustration of these facts was the Mayan ball game, which was played using hips legs and the head to pass the ball across the line or through a hoop. The ball game had different symbols brought together, to illustrate a certain meaning. According to the archeologists, the ball was used to symbolize sun, and the game indicated the orbit around the sun. The sun was looked upon as a god to be worshiped, and by playing the game, they were worshiping the sun god. The game could have illustrated the changing of season, and rituals in the Mayan society served as timekeeper for regulating the agricultural tasks. The ball courts and other buildings acted as religious and observatories (Public Citizen, N.d.).

Geometry

Just as their knowledge for astronomy and other sciences such as arithmetic, the Mayans had a good geometric knowledge that was incorporated in their daily activities, especially in their construction of buildings. Majority of their buildings were trimmed four faced rectangular prisms, cylinders that indicate that these buildings were well planned before constructions since there are measurements that apply to the buildings such as the diagonal length of the rectangular buildings. To fix the roof in the shape they did, which was dome shaped, they needed to know the measurement required to meet all sides equally as their buildings looked. This was proof of knowledge for geometry, which is more of a natural math, where certain rules apply. considering that geometry is about shapes and measurements, it can be said that from the ruins of the Mayans, where buildings with different shapes were found, and at the same time different shapes of those buildings being repeated, it is a sure sign that  they knew about geometry, and their construction work was planned before it  was done (Hoffman, 2005).

Conclusion

The different shapes such as the pyramids, needed to have definite measurements that would ensure that the top met as uniformly as shown in their buildings. If one side of a pyramid were longer, the shape would not be a pyramid since it would not meet at the top as expected to make it a pyramid. The rectangular shapes needed two sides of it two be equal and the other two to be equal to make a rectangle shape. The ball court was made in a shape that resembled a capital I, which means that measurements to make it so were needed.

The Mayans can be considered a very innovative civilization that brought several civilizations that have relevance even in the current times. It is evident that Mayans were very intellect people who were much skilled and civilized at their time. From their cities, some of which are still standing to date, it is clear that they had knowledge of architecture and arts, as well as pottery and agriculture. They were among the first people in Mesoamerica to domesticate plants, and practice formal farming that incorporated irrigation schemes, and building terraces and raised fields without sophisticated technology as today.

From their astronomy, it is clear that they were great observers and could predict astronomical events accurately such as the eclipses, and the revolution of Venus, which they just missed by a day. Their arithmetic was very sophisticated but it managed to allow representation of huge values of numbers, and used zero in their numbers, which helped in calculations such as addition. This was an evidence of their scholarly prowess possessed in them. They also used geometry in their construction, which proves that again, they were well aware of measurement and shapes (Hoffman, 2005). The Mayans can be considered as one of the pioneers of civilization in American history since some of the civilizations that took place are still practice today, such as irrigation, astronomy, geometry and some of their architectural designs. They are known for their massive contribution in civilization during the classic and pre-classic period.

 

References

Authentic Maya. (2005). Maya Astronomy. Retrieved from http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_astronomy.htm

Dave. (2009). Mayan Civilization Math. Retrieved from

http://patentednews.com/mayan-inventions/mayan-civilization-math/

Foster, L. (2002). Handbook to life in the ancient Maya world. New York, NY: InfoBase Publishing.

Hoffman, M. (2005). The History of the Maya: Using Computational Skills in Problem Solving.New York, NY: Rosen Classroom.

Lost Civilization. (N.d.) Mayan Astronomy. Maya. Retrieved from

http://www.lost-civilizations.net/mayan-astronomy.html

Lost Civilization. (N.d.) Mayan history. Maya. Retrieved from

http://www.lost-civilizations.net/mayan-history.html

Maya and Aztec. (2011). Mayan Architecture. Retrieved from

http://www.maya-aztec.com/2010/07/26/mayan-architecture/

Sean. (2010). Arithmetic. Retrieved from http://clccharter.org/kurt1/ancient%20civilization/Maya/Arithmetic.html

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