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Week reading 5 & 6

Article 1

The article talks about the possibility of space not being completely void, but being occupied by some certain elements. The writer argues that nothing on earth disappears; instead, it occupies part of the space. He writes that whatever existed in space before continues to survive though not in its original physical form. He adds that objects, which existed in space before, have their own way of surviving and remaining within the social space. The author supports his argument by saying that architectonics may be used to explain and describe how these objects are able to survive, since it reassembles all the elements that existed but at some point have been dispersed. The author has proven his point by using anthropology, where living organisms die and deposited into space as sedimentary layers and metaphorical short hand of srata and periods.

Article 2

The author talks of human labor’s inability to reduce despite the levels of technology increasing. Moreover, he talks of solitude and oppression not being the solution to this problem. He says that man should not be exploited but rather be given the freedom to use his creativity. He argues that changing production from manual to technical will not only reduce work but also make man more creative and competitive. This is the best way of freeing them and adding their value. He adds that, in the present world, any act of cruelty is considered a crime and is punishable by law. He proposes that workers should be organized socially into trade unions and political organizations. The author’s argument was right as currently workers are now treated fairly and have their rights.

Article 3

This article suggests that all the images that exist, whether pictorial motion or even physical, are due to architecture. The author points out that, at some point, all objects, whether physical or found in magazines or motion pictures, were at one point or another the work of an architect. He says that, at some point, someone (an architect) had to come up with a plan or   design before turning it to a real object. He mentions, Marshall McLuhan’s, a writer, (Gutenberg Galaxy: The making of typographic man) as proof that architecture is the source of everything. The author has done a good job in pointing this out and has even had support from other authors such as Christopher Alexander.

Article 4

This article speaks about the role and importance of atmosphere in our lives. The author, a German philosopher, argues that philosophers have put much emphasis on objects and subjects, and it is time they focus more on the atmosphere. He suggests that philosophers should focus on how human beings can nurture their lives. They should ask themselves what the environmental conditions in which they should live in are. He further writes that, scientists should not allow science to turn them into walking laboratories, where they only think of experiments on how to come up with new inventions. Scientists should instead focus on how the atmosphere will help us in existing. His argument is valid, as it has been supported by an artist known as Olafur Eliason and backed by scientist Ulrick Beck.

 

 

Article 5

The article speaks about the need to take care of the environment to enable the existence and survival of human beings. It suggests that there is a need to protect our physical environment through employing of technical resources and social groups to control the disasters befalling our environment. The author argues that constructing massive structures is not a solution to managing disasters in our environment, but coming up with natural means as a better solution. He talks of maintaining dryness during rainstorms, heat during winter, and it being chilly during the summer in order to enjoy our environment. The author has made his points clear, and this can be proven by the numerous efforts in our nation to manage the environment.

 

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                                               Book review: The Crucible by Arthur Miller.

1. a.                  Introduction

The Crucible is one of the plays written by Arthur Miller, a playwright from America. The book dramatizes the way witch hunting and witch trials took place at Salem, Massachusetts in the year 1692 through 1693. The play is a metaphorical depiction of the McCarthyism which was evident by the blacklisting of a communist that was accused by the government of United States. The playwright was once interrogated in 1956 with accusations of anti-American activism. Miller was in fact accused of having contempt of the congress. This was because he had deliberately ignored the presence of some members of the American congress in his meetings. This was the foundation of this play. This drama was performed on the first time at Martin Beck Theater in 1953 (Abbotson, 2007, p.117). It was reviewed later and it won the best play award in the same year (Wilmeth & Bigsby, 1998, p.415). It is one of the principle American plays.

1. b.                  Strength of the play

The strengths of the Crucible include: the ability to create, develop and use characters in realizing the requirements of this drama. Miller does not directly use real characters from the community he depicts in this play. This creativity in developing new characters to fit perfectly in a certain role is strength of this play. The author also uses metaphorical language to bring out themes and characters, for example, he says, “Let you not mistake your duty as I mistook my own. I came into this village like a bridegroom to his beloved, bearing gifts of high religion; the very crowns of holy law I brought, and what I touched with my bright confidence, it died; and where I turned the eye of my great faith, blood flowed up.” (132). This is a literary strength.

The title of the play is another source of strength. Crucible is a word that is used to define a metallic container that smelters use to subject other metals to extremely high rates of temperatures. Millers use it metaphorically to represent the subjection of every character in this play to certain difficult test. They are put through hot situations and environment just like a metal would be put in the crucible and made to go through very high temperatures. If a certain metal is pure, it does not melt when put through a certain degree of heat. On the contrary, the impure metals will quickly melt under the same circumstances. In the same way, characters with above the notch characters are able to win through even when they are just about to be killed, for example Rebecca Nurse and John proctor. This is seen as symbolism; that they refused to melt. According to Miller, these characters chose this dangerous path to have a fulfillment of a life worth of their principles. He says, ‘“Do you take it upon yourself to determine what this court shall believe and what it shall set aside?” (79).’

1. c.                   Weaknesses of the Play

These include: the plot of this play is untrue to the actual historical age of the events.  There exist a wide disparity between the actual period when these events of witch hunting happened in America and the period that the playwright depicts. The events of witch hunting happened in 1692 through 1693 at the Bay of Massachusetts. The play is then written later like an allegory resulting from McCarthyism after the government of United States convicts a communist in 1956. Miller is also accused by the United States Congress of being anti-American when he refused to acknowledge the presence of other congress men in his meetings.

In addition, the other weakness of this play is that some of the characters are underwritten. This makes the reader have a restricted access to the understanding of their thoughts. The author ought to have given these minor characters a more expansive space to take part in the occurrences so that the reader can have a clear basis of attaching their character. Such characters include Ezekiel Cheever, Thomas Putnam and Betty Parris among others. The author says that human beings are of equal and crucial importance. Abigail Williams, the antagonist of this drama, (Bloom 2008, p.10) and John Proctor, the main protagonist, (Ram 1988, 22) are given too much prominence.

The other weakness in this play is that the setting is especially restricted. This is because most scenes occur in rooms and in the court only. This limits the readers’ outlook of the play as a whole. This also depicts that the author may have deliberately omitted some important parts of the play as he tried to narrow down the sceneries. It is also an indication that the play is not wholesome since it does not include the whole picture of the people, their complete environment and culture. It is therefore not inclusive.

1. d.                  Major themes in this play

These includes: the theme of fear, individuality and reputation. The theme of fear is brought out clearly in the play. Human beings fear everything that they cannot understand. They see what is not familiar to them as a source of threat. In the Crucible, the people of Salem feared that their land would be overwhelmed by evil spirits if they allowed witch craft to take roots in their country. It is this fear that develops into hysteria, anxiety and even to paranoia. Fear spreads from one individual to the other at a very speedy rate. For example he says, “The witch-hunt was a perverse manifestation of the panic which set in among all classes when the balance began to turn toward greater individual freedom.” (6) The author is convincing in his demonstration of this theme. He gives relevant examples. For example, Betty says that she had seen Martha Bellow in the company of the devil and this makes Abigail to also begin accusing the people of town. She also accuses Sibber. Because fear is hysterical, other young girls also begin making similar accusations. From this point, everybody in Salem becomes very fearful of witches or even the impact of others accusing them as witches. People are naturally fearful of unknown things.

The theme of individuality is also depicted in this play. The government of Salem suppresses the minority and support individuality. The author says, “This predilection for minding other people’s business was time-honored among the people of Salem, and it undoubtedly created many of the suspicions which were to feed the coming madness.” (4). The playwright is convincing in his depiction of this theme because he persistently uses various characters to expound it through examples. For example, John Proctor and Elizabeth try to push for individual considerations but the Salem community does not have a place for what is not communal. It is also Elizabeth who tries to convince her accusers that there is nothing like witchcraft when she says, “A wide opinion’s running in the parish that the Devil may be among us, and I would satisfy them that they are wrong.” (26).

The other major theme is the theme of reputation. They did not believe in having their names soiled, for example, “These people had no ritual for the washing away of sins. It is another trait we inherited from them, and it has helped to discipline us as well as to breed hypocrisy among us.” (19). Several characters in the play take certain actions in order to safeguard their reputation. For example, he convincingly shows that it is because of reputation that John proctor does not testify against Abigail.  Reputation also makes him chose to die and leave a good reputation behind. He says “Let you not mistake your duty as I mistook my own. I came into this village like a bridegroom to his beloved, bearing gifts of high religion; the very crowns of holy law I brought, and what I touched with my bright confidence, it died; and where I turned the eye of my great faith, blood flowed up.” (132)

1. e.                   Author’s writing motive

The author’s motive of writing this book was to demonstrate the social and political ills that the society goes through. The author was a victim of the fight for a capitalist world by America. He was even questioned by American congress for not recognizing the congress members in some of his meetings. This provoked him to write about the evils that political fight against individualism, instilling of fear, and the need to safeguard ones reputation may bring about in the society. He writes that the leadership believed that it was in control of every aspect of the society, “They believed, in short, that they held in their steady hands the candle that would light the world. We have inherited this belief, and it has helped and hurt us.” (5). The Author’s larger political and social agenda of this play is to portray the challenges that people go through due to fear, individual stands, and in defense of their reputation. In the social and political spheres today people are still fearful of the unknown, for example, people fear terror threats. For example, the Al-Qaeda led by the late Osama bin Laden’s twin attacks in America on September 11^th.  Governments of the world have organized for more surveillance, security checks and armed follow up on the terrorists. This is similar to what was happening at Salem when people feared what would happen next if the evil spirits engulfed their land; they believed in the execution of the witches and even the suspects of witchcraft.

1. f.                   Relevance of the play today

In conclusion, in today’s political spectrum, the author would be classified as a strong advocate of democracy and leadership integrity. This is because his work has great relevancy to what the society is going through politically. For example, the author seems to passionately advocate for individualism and the freedom of self expression. He says, “The witch-hunt was a perverse manifestation of the panic which set in among all classes when the balance began to turn toward greater individual freedom.” (6). This means that if a leader is clean, they should be incorruptible by any political evils like power, money and positions. They turn to evil ways like corruption, witchcraft and witch hunting, assassinations and election rigging. This tarnishes their names and reputation. Millers says, “The witch-hunt was not, however, a mere repression. It was also, and as importantly, a long overdue opportunity for everyone so inclined to publicly express his guilt and sins, under the cover of accusations against the victims.” (7)

 

 

Works Cited

Abbotson, Susan. Masterpieces of 20th-century American Drama. Westport, CT: Greenwood,      2005. P. 117

Bloom, Harold. Arthur Miller’s The Crucible. Chelsea House, 2008. p.8

Miller, Arthur. The Crucible. New York: Penguin, 1995. Pp 4,5,6,7,19,26,79,132

Ram, Atma. Perspectives on Arthur Miller. Abhinav. 1988. P. 22

Wilmeth, Don, and Bigsby, Ellen. The Cambridge History of American Theatre.  Cambridge:        Cambridge UP. 3 (1998) 415

 

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Abstract

In the past, the rate of obesity was low. However, currently, the rate of obesity has increased worldwide. This increase in obesity is attributed to change of lifestyles among people. People want to live a very comfortable life. This has made them change their diets; most people opting for fast foods and junk foods that contain a lot of calories. Furthermore, they are over-engaged with work, which hinder them to participate in physical exercise. Television and other forms of media have played a big role in spreading propaganda about fast foods, which has increased their level of consumption. The government and other stakeholders have a responsibility of ensuring that the effects brought about by these ads are mitigated. The costs incurred through treatment of obesity is enormous and therefore a burden to providers and the government.  Many people have lost their lives due to obesity.

 

Overeating/Obesity

Various conditions and diseases have emerged because of the changing lifestyle of people.  Obesity/overweight is one of the health complications that many people are facing.  Obesity is a health condition where excess body fats accumulate in the body of an individual. This accumulation of body fats has adverse effects on health and may shorten the life expectancy of an individual. An individual is considered obese when the body mass index is above 30kg/m² (Centers for disease control and prevention para. 2).  Body mass index is measured by dividing the weight of an individual in terms of kilograms with the height of the person in meters. Obesity is one of the preventive diseases and one of the leading causes of deaths in adults as well as children in the 21^st century. It has also caused most serious public health issues in the world. The diseases prevalence is increasing because of the changing lifestyles among the people. For instance, it is estimated that more than one-third of the American citizens averaging to 35.7 percent suffer from obese (Centers for disease control and prevention para. 2).  Obesity causes diseases such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke and other cancer related diseases. The cost associated with treatment of cancer is high and in 2008, the medical costs associated with treatments of obesity averaged 147 US billion dollars (Centers for disease control and prevention para. 4).  Obesity is also associated with people coming from high socio-economic status. The high-income families have different eating habits. They mostly consume fatty foods, which are rich in high levels of cholesterol, which causes them to become obese.

Obesity has become a big challenge in the society. The reason for my decision to discuss about obesity is its health implication to the society. The disease is preventive but it kills many people.  There is need for society to take their own initiatives to ensure that they prevent diseases resulting from obese. Furthermore, my personal experience and encounter with individuals suffering from these health problems has increased my interest to study the area and find out more about it.  I also wanted to educate and inform the society on the best approaches to prevent the disease. Society has the responsibility of ensuring that their health status is good. Many people are ignorant on causes of obesity, which is a great factor that has contributed to the increased prevalence of obesity. Overeating and consumption of junk food is high and people like such food because of easy accessibility.  I am contended that this topic will interest the readers. The audience the paper targets include parents and children from different social economic backgrounds. The problem of obese is becoming a challenge in the society and therefore, there is need for all people in the society to be aware of the causes and the ways of preventing such disease. Even though obese was confused with healthy and wealthy, this was a misconception because the health of a person is not determined on the weights or body mass of the individual. Therefore, this discussion is aimed at countering these misconceptions, cultural beliefs that misinformed the society on the actual causes of obesity. Therefore, this discussion will play a vital role in transforming the behaviors of the society in terms of their choice of food and many other areas that may put their health in jeopardy due to obesity (Centers for disease control and prevention para. 3).

Hypothesis

Overeating/obesity is caused by overeating and feeding on foods rich in high contents of cholesterol and fats.

Various researches have established many likely causes of obesity. The most prominent cause of obesity is eating/consuming a lot of foods that are rich in cholesterol and calories. Intake of foods rich in fatty or cholesterol plays a very high role in increased prevalence of obesity.  Many cases of obesity were associated with developed nations but this has spread to the developing countries. People in developing countries are emulating eating habits of people from the West. Mass media and technology has contributed in changing of lifestyle of people and especially in eating habits.   Junk food and fast food are on high demand. Most parents, especially those with high income and those in middle-income levels, are fond of buying these foods for their children and even themselves.  Amidst intensive awareness on the effects of these foods, people have clinched on them in the euphoria of changing to new living styles. They continue to overeat and buy these foods.  For instance, in 1984, 14% of the US population was obese compared to the current 35.7 percent. The number of people becoming obese is increasing on daily basis. The rate of consumption of calories among women in the U.S increased from 1542 per day in 1971 to 1877 by 2004, while in men, it increased from 2450 in 1971 to 2618 in the year 2004.  The increase in the number of obese people is not always attributed to the high intake of fats as many people think. Most people in the U.S who became obese had high intake of carbohydrates and sugary foods such as sweets and drinks as well as fast foods. In the case of the U.S, increased consumption of carbohydrates and sweets due to high commercial advertisements that run on various medias is a contribution factor that has caused rapid increase in obesity cases. These commercial ads appeal to many people; and especially children who develop interest in fast foods and sweets (New Statesman 6).

I have also discovered that sedimentary lifestyles that people lead contribute to the increasing rates of obesity.  People are gaining weights without their knowledge. The invention of technology and improved living standards has contributed to increase in weight in individuals (New Statesman 6). The arrival of videogames, television computers, remote controls, dishwashers, washing machines and other machines have changed the way people live. The way people are living currently is different from the way our parents and grand parents used to live. This has made people lazy and because of not engaging their body in exercises, their bodies cannot burn calories. This makes them become overweight.  Nowadays shopping has also changed. People can order goods and get the delivered at the comfort of their home. They do not have to walk to the shops to purchase their products. This contributes to accumulation of calories in their bodies due to lack of exercise (McDermott 5). Cars and other means of transportation have also played a major role in increasing the number of obese people in society. Every body is hoping and working hard to buy a car. This trend deters people from moving or walking to their shopping malls hence leading to increased number/cases of obesity. People do not engage in enough physical activities. Physical activity affects the working of hormones, which affects how the body deals with foods that are eaten.  Hormones help in balancing the level of insulin in our bodies that help to keep our weights stable. Unstable levels of insulin causes weight gain, which in turn contributes or leads to obesity.

Furthermore, I have also discovered that obesity can be caused by inadequate sleep. This cuts across all members of the society, children and adults inclusive. This was revealed after Professor Francesco of the Warwick medical school conducted a research study on 28,000 children and 15,000 adults. Children as young as 5 years as well as adults have the same chances of becoming obese due to inadequate sleep. The relationships of not having enough sleep and developing obese are explained by the fact that hormones change when a person does not have enough sleep (McDermott 5).  For instance, if a person does not get enough sleep, the Gheric hormone that is in charge of stimulating appetite is stimulated.  This makes the individual have high appetite to eat and this result to overeating, which eventually causes overweight and obese. On this argument, there are various factors that will actually contribute to whether an individual will be able to add more weight or not. Some of these factors include availability of food and the level of income to guarantee the person an opportunity to consume the food that the individual admires. Therefore, this is more evident in families that have high income or those with middle-income levels.  This is because such people have the ability to access to any kind of foods they want. Hence they are at risk of becoming obese compared to those people who earn low income or those that are poor and cannot always afford any kind of foodstuff they want.

I have also learned that there are some medicines that are subscribed to patients, which cause overweight and obese. The bodies of people are different in the way they react to medicines. Some of these medications affect functioning of our bodies. Therefore, it is salient that alternative therapies are provided to such individuals to avoid the risk of overweight and obesity. Medical practitioners should carry out thorough investigation to find out whether the drugs that they prescribe to their patients are indeed suitable. These drugs or any medication should have no effects or less negative effects on the health of the individual the drug is administered to (Keaise 83). There are endocrine disruptors, which are found in certain foods. These endocrines interfere with the lipid metabolism, which eventually cause or alter the lipid energy metabolism that cause fatty liver syndrome. This accumulation is caused by failure of liver to metabolize fructose in the body which leads to accumulation of lipids and fatty liver that eventuality causes health complication such as hypertension, resistance to insulin that makes a patience to become obese and suffer from diabetes.

Obesity and overeating is a serious challenge at this moment. The world and the way people live have changed. Compared to the earlier lifestyles, the current lifestyle people have cravings to feed on ready-made foods/processed foods, such as fast foods and junk. They do this regardless of the inherent risks of becoming obese and even suffer from medical complications such as stroke and diabetes among other complications. Technology has played a pivotal role in influencing the behavior of people in terms of the foods they consume. Various commercial promoting these junk foods are frequently advertised on television and internet. This has contributed to change of eating habits among people. These avenues perpetuate or disseminate propaganda message to the target audiences, which include children and adults to woo them to consume these products. They convey good message aired to capture the interest or the instincts of the audiences and drive them to buy their products every time they feel they want to eat some food (Foster, Gore and West 3).   This junk food is promoted to children and this explains why the rate of obesity is not going to reduce in the near future if urgent measures are not going to be taken. The manufacturing companies producing these products are driven by their self-interest of amassing more wealth by making much profit. They do not think about the effects of their products and the health implications of their products. The buck stops with the government. The government has the prerogative to put place stringent measures to ensure manufacturers produce high quality products. The reason why the government should be concerned even if they accrue income through taxes is that the effect of such products is enormous in terms of costs of meeting the treatment of the disease, increased death rate and loss of people or human capital that may have contributed positively in the economic development of the country. Government has many options to ensure that products or goods sold to consumers are of high quality (Foster, Gore and West 3).

One of the options that the government can adopt to reduce consumption of such products is to carry out an awareness campaign through various mediums such as television and social media through the internet. The message should target parents and their children and should educate them about the consequences of feeding on junk foods and foods that have high levels of cholesterol. The government can also increase the amount of taxes or Value added tax on such products to deter consumers from accessing them. This will discourage many consumers including parents and children from purchasing such products and therefore will opt to purchase other foods.

Other measures are to set standards of quality. The manufacturers should be able to produce foods that have no health implication on the users. This will reduce the level of consumption of such foods, hence causes of obesity or overweight will be reduced drastically (Kuchar 125). It is also important that government comes up with measures such as restricting the number of commercial advertisements that are aired on televisions to ensure that people are not lured into purchasing such products. These ads can be eliminated/banned or if it is necessary should be aired at specific period and should be labeled with a health message warming of the consequences of consuming such products. This will deter many people from consuming such products hence this will help to reduce the prevalence of obesity in the world (Berlant 754). These measures are important and are helpful because they will reduce the costs related to treatment of obesity and will prevent break up of related diseases such as diabetes and stroke.

Television viewing influences behaviors of individuals more. Therefore, children who view ads that promote these junk foods are often culprits. They insist that their parents and guardians buy them such foods. Therefore, by putting in place measures that bar commercial advertisements of such foods, the rate and prevalence of obesity may be reduced. There is also need for the society to change their lifestyle. Nowadays, people are not engaged in physical exercises even if they consume fatty foods and when they overeat. They normally claim that they have busy work schedules and sometimes think that doing exercise such as working and jogging is strenuous. They are misplaced. This makes them become overweight because the insulin in the body is not stimulated to act on the cholesterol. There bodies are not able to burn cholesterol in their body making them grow fat (Yancey, Leslie and Abel 425). The increased weight causes many other medical complications, which include stroke, hypertension and diabetes that finally lead to death. Obesity is one of the preventive diseases that continue to claim lives of many people. It is a disease that can be prevented and the only thing to observe is to eat balanced diets that is authenticated by the medical practitioners and engaging the body. Another important thing people should do is to always find time to exercise their body. They should find time to jog around, walk for some distance and even go to gyms to do some exercises to enable them lose their weight.   Many people nowadays are civilized and are illiterate (Levitan and Davis 783). They need to be wise enough to take proper diets to minimize the changes of becoming obese.  Obesity is related to people who earn more compared to those who earn less. People and children with access to these foods have higher chances of becoming obese. Many use their financial capability to buy such foods.  This is why it is very common to find people from high social economic status suffering from obesity related ailments such as stroke as supposed to those from low-level income.

Obesity is a society problem and its effects are devastating. Society should be concerned about this epidemic, which continues to claim lives of many. People should take their health with a lot of caution and always endeavor to eat balanced diets and do exercises. Most of the victims of obese feed on high levels of cholesterol foods, and many overeat.  The solution lies in their hands. Other influences or contributors are the media. Media, especially television and internet have contributed to the increased level of consumption of these junk foods, fast foods, sugary foods and sweets. Parents and the government have the responsibility of ensuring that such prevalence of the disease is contained. For instance, government can institute measures to restrict advertisement of such foods to help contain propaganda perpetrated by the various manufacturing companies through their ads. The effects of obesity if huge in term of cost of meeting or providing health care. Society should join hands to find amicable solutions towards the scourge that has become one of the most killing medical conditions. Obesity is preventable. Prevention is better than cure as the consequences of obesity is fatal.

Works Cited

Berlant, Lauren. Slow Death (Sovereignty, Obesity, Lateral Agency), Critical Inquiry, 33 4(2007):754-780. Print.

Centers for disease control and prevention:  Overweight and obesity, (2010). Retrieved from:             http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html

Foster, Jill, Gore, Stacy and West, Smith. Altering TV Viewing Habits: An Unexplored    Strategy for Adult Obesity Intervention?, American Journal of Health Behavior,          30.1(2006):3-14. Print.

Keaise Martina. Kids & Obesity, Library Media Connection, 29 .5(2009):83-83. Print.

Kuchar, Gary. The Culture of Obesity in Early and Late Modernity: Body Image in           Shakespeare, Jonson, Middleton, and Skelton, Seventeenth Century News,. 67.3/4             (2009):125-128. Print.

Levitan, Robert and Davis, Caroline. Emotions and Eating Behaviour: Implications for the           Current Obesity Epidemic, University of Toronto Quarterly, 79.2(2010):783-799. Print.

McDermott, Lisa .A Critical Interrogation of Contemporary Discourses of Physical (In)    Activity amongst Canadian Children: Back to the Future, Journal of Canadian           Studies, 42.2(2008):5-42. Print.

New Statesman. How to cut out obesity, 133. 4690(2004):6-7. Print.

Yancey, Antronette, Leslie, Joanne and Abel, Emily. Obesity at the Crossroads:    Feminist and Public Health Perspectives, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture &             Society, 31.2(2006):425-443. Print.

 

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease is a lung disease whereby the airways become narrowed leading to a limitation on the flow of Oxygen into and Carbon Dioxide out of the body. It is mostly caused by smoking or lack of a protein called alpha-1 antitrypsin. Its main symptom is shortness of breath, but others include coughing, fatigue, production of mucus and wheezing. There is no cure for COPD, but various things can be done to relieve the symptoms and stop the disease from getting worse. Exercise and diet can be one of the major activities in managing this disease.

Exercise training rehabilitates the body’s pulmonary system and helps in improving the physical quality and capacity of life. (Erwin, Hanney, Hyland & Jones, 2004). Aerobics exercises such as walking, cycling and resistance exercises such as lifting weights, can help restore and sustain functional independence in COPD patients. This is because inactivity in a COPD patient leads to declining of the cardiovascular function and the skeleton muscle mass. This leads to greater breathlessness with exertion, muscular fatigue, loss of functioning freedom as an individual, and depression. It is therefore, very advisable for COPD patients to take part in exercising as it enables them to maintain their physical capacity and therefore continue running their day-to-day activities. Physical fitness moreover, desensitizes the patient to the fact that they normally have shortness of breath, and they learn to accept that, thus leading to them living a normal lifestyle. In addition, researchers have proven that patients who tend to do a lot of exercise show better performance on tests of verbal fluency signifying that regular exercises increase blood flow to the brain to enhance cognitive function.

Shortness of breath being the major symptom of COPD; may cause a patient to lose their appetite. However, a well-nourished body is vital in trying to manage the disease. A well-nourished body is made up of a balanced diet, which consists of proteins and fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and plenty of water. A person suffering from COPD should acquire such a diet. Patients are advised to eat more of proteins and fats than carbohydrates as they are bodybuilding foods and will thus play a major role in increasing the blood supply in the body, leading to production of more oxygen, which is in high demand in the body. On the other hand, carbohydrates tend to lead to accumulation of more Carbon Dioxide in the body, which will make the patient exhale harder to emit it. This will lead to more shortness of breath. Nutritionists advice consumption of commercial food supplements which contain less of carbohydrates and more of proteins and fats.

Taking multi-vitamins and minerals is helpful as it helps in repairing of the walls of the air sacs in the lungs since at times, the oxygen in the body changes to toxic forms. They act as antioxidants by detoxifying the poisonous forms of oxygen. Water and other fluid intake allow the body to thin the mucus and phlegm making it easier to cough it out. Fluid intake should however, be less at night to reduce the frequency of one urinating that may disrupt the sleep (Erwin, Hanney, Hyland & Jones, 2004). Persons suffering from COPD should take small meals regularly. This will take care of the problem of finding it difficult to eat thus, they will not burn their breathing muscles for eating purposes.

In conclusion, exercise, healthy diet and proper healthcare, lead to a healthy lifestyle, despite having COPD. However, dangerous forms of physical fitness such as mountain climbing and skydiving should be avoided, as they tend to increase the breathing rate. Food such as dairy products should be avoided, as they tend to thicken the mucus.

 

 

References

Erwin, J. C., Hyland, M. E., Hanney, K., & Jones, R. C (January 01, 2004). A qualitative study of compliance with medication and lifestyle modification in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Primary Care Respiratory Journal : Journal of the General Practice Airways Group, 13, 3, 149-54.

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Determine How Creations by Linda Hogan Conforms to the Eight Principles of Deep Ecology

            Creations is an essay written by Linda Hogan as part of a collection entitled Heart of the Land. It describes a journey to the regions of the estuaries Ria Celestun and Ria Lagartos in Yucatan, Mexico. The essay espouses descriptions of the regions traveled with an ecological aspect. This lends the essay to comparisons between itself and deep ecology, a philosophy that advocates for the equal regard of all life forms on Earth irrespective of their perceived usefulness to humans. Deep ecology is based on eight echelons of principles that explain the platform of its claims. An analysis of the Hogan’s essay reveals that it does conform to the principles of deep ecology.

Principle 1 and 2: All life forms have their own qualities that make them valuable and warrant respect. All creation was put on Earth for a purpose irrespective of whether or not human beings find any direct use for these life forms or not. Comprehension of the intelligence underlying the design is beyond human reach. Hogan gives examples of the majesty of nature for the sake of being majestic without necessarily having an aesthetic value. She is in awe of the fish she encounters while swimming and the circular patterns they create without breaks even when disturbed.

Principle 3 and 5: Human beings have increasingly raided nature to provide themselves with food, and accessories. The latter has endangered the biodiversity of various regions by driving some populations of animals and plants to extinction. The rate of hunting and poaching has often been insufficient to match the reproduction rate of these species. The writer notes, “…where the tracks end in the sand, there are human footprints” (Barbato & Weinerman, 98). This is a direct reference to poaching activities of sea turtles, animals already endangered, as evidenced by their decreasing numbers.

Principle 4: Populations of different species around the world have decreased with the increase of human populations. This is because humans encroach on habitats and pushing the initial occupants out of their homes by causing an imbalance in the ecosystem (Sahney et al.). Land is the key factor in human settlement as a source of arable land for agricultural purposes. Increase of human populations places stress on the natural resources and the competition that ensues leaves other species displaced. This is what Hogan noted by the decrease of turtle populations (98). Encroachment into the beach at Celestun has been the direct reason to this extinction process.

Principle 6: The current way of life in the world is based on an anthropocentric attitude that places the individual interests of man above all species to the latter’s detriment. The replacement of natural material with synthetic ones has numerous effects on the economic and ecologic aspects of the affected region (Wilson, 48-52). Hogan describes the poverty-stricken people of Ria Celestun, who have been reduced to their current state by the devastating effects of the adoption of technology without foresight. The use of polythene and nylon rope instead of henequen rope may seem like a sound technological milestone, but the effects are degradation of nature with non-biodegradable material and displacement of the economic activity of a group of people.

Principle 7: Greed has been the motivation of people’s attainment of higher standards of living. It has propelled the policies made on a range of fields. The relocation of Native Americans from their ancestral homes was driven by the greed of land ownership. Such attitudes have conceived destructive habits and practices. The villages Hogan comes across came into being because of the greed of manufacturers seeking cheap alternatives. They have left these villagers without a source of income, and their homes are built on reclaimed swamps and garbage. The quality of life of these villagers has been remarkable reduced to the benefit of a more powerful minority. Ecological systems in the swamps have also suffered resulting from the garbage piled into them.

Principle 8: Protection of the environment and conservation of existing habitats is an ongoing environmental and ecological effort supported by various groups. The activities of these groups justifies this principle as these people have realized the importance of the other life forms to the sustenance of human life. Groups such as the Green Movement and Earth First! are associated with deep ecology based on a number of similar principles, especially this one (Merchant, 198-201). Hogan spoke of Pronatura in her essay, in reference to their conservancy efforts (98-102).

The essay written by Linda Hogan addresses some ecological issues that are in tandem with the principles espoused by the deep ecology philosophies. Hogan’s observations on the lives of the inhabitants of the two estuaries are an expose on the effects of an anthropocentric mindset that has reduced the quality of life among the Yucatan population. A shift in this outlook will do to change the course humankind has chosen for this planet. It is the responsibility of human beings to take charge and their policies and practices for the salvation of all.

 

Works Cited

Barbato, Joseph, and Lisa Weinerman. Heart of the Land: Essays on Last Great Places. New York: Pantheon Books, 1994. Print.

Merchant, Carolyn. Ecology. Amherst, N.Y: Humanity Books, 2008. Print.

Sahney, Sarda, Michael J. Benton and Paul A. Ferry. “Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land”. Biology Letters 6 (4): 544–547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024. PMC 2936204. PMID 20106856. Published 27 January 2010. Retrieved 17-10-2012.

Wilson, Edward O. The Future of Life. New York: Vintage Books, 2003. Print.

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Criminal Defense Case Analysis

Some of the widely used defense positions include duress, intoxication and insanity. The identified defenses are used to secure the innocence of a plaintiff. Duress is considered subjection to perform an act that is unlawful by means of force. It usually applies in cases of imminent or possible peril of death, injury, serious injury present in the defendants’ mind and burdening his will as rational capacity. On the other hand, defense on grounds of intoxication apply when toxicity negates an intention. For instance, lack of a particular intent might reduce a murder charge to manslaughter. Additionally, specific mens rea are applicable in specific cases or incidences. Insanity is also another form of defense assumed in law. It is defined as a mental disorder that has the potency to negate intent in a crime. However, it is only applicable to crimes which elements of intent. A declaration of innocence on grounds of insanity usually results in the defendant’s admission, in a mental hospital.

In the case of Dixon vs., United States (05-7053), which was presented in the United States Court Of Appeals, Fifth Circuit on April 25 2006 various issues were presented before the judges in court for determination (CornellUniversityLawSchool, 2012). There were issues of duress, criminal law, saddle of proof, beaten-up woman’s syndrome, due process clause and the Fifth Amendment. The concerns in this case presented before the court of appeal were if the defendant was to bear the saddle of persuasion and provide grounds through the preponderance of the evidence (CornellUniversityLawSchool, 2012).

This was after the defendant had assumed a position of affirmative defense of duress. In addition, the defendant could also prove if the government was to bear the burden as well as demonstrating outside reasonable doubt that duress was inexistent. The petitioner Dixon was of the opinion that the government should accept the saddle of persuasion due to the presence of duress, which in turn counteracts the mens rea, or the component of the crime committed. Additionally in the Due Process Clause in the Fifth Amendment, the government is tasked with proving all aspects of a crime beyond reasonable doubt and disproving any form of defense (CornellUniversityLawSchool, 2012).

In January 2003, Keshia Dixon bought seven guns illegally by providing information that was false to gun dealers in Dallas. The defendant claimed that, Thomas Earl Wright, her then boyfriend, intimidated her and her three daughters with death threats if she failed to oblige to make the gun purchases on his behalf. Another fact is that the boyfriend is a convicted felon who is unable to make purchases of guns for himself. Additionally, the defendant, Dixon, claims that she has been a victim of a pattern of persistent abuse. She claims that she was beaten an approximately four to five times that week before the purchase. However, she did not lodge any complaint or report with the local police offices nor did she seek help from her neighbors (CornellUniversityLawSchool, 2012).

In the court proceedings, she was charged with providing false information to obtain firearms and receipt of guns while she faced indictment for earlier charges. She raises the confirmatory defense of duress. This claim raised by the defendant enables individuals to escape legal liability is they are able to show the presence of coercion to execute a crime failure to which there is imminent bodily harm or injury. As established in the fifth circuit rule, the defense accepts the saddle of proof for the defense availed. Hence, it must prove all the elements or aspects of defense through a predominance of the evidence provided. Dixon was charged and convicted under this part of the law ion the trial court (Cornell University Law School, 2012).

Her defense argued that the Fifth Circuit should provide reconsideration on grounds that the duress defense assumed by Dixon counteracted the mens rea and the elements of the crime at hand in the case. Her grounds were dismissed because she was not under what is described immediate threat to peril and injury posed by the boyfriend. The justification for the ruling is due to the aspect of immediacy. Immediacy falls as the major requirement in the duress defense as it requires the presence of urgency to save life through committing a crime.

In the case of R v Lipman (1970)1 QB 152, which was a case that established that voluntary intoxication irrespective of its extremities, did not amount to a defense for manslaughter (Sixth Form Law, 2012). The defendant who voluntarily accepted to consume dangerous drugs was expressly taking a dangerous risk which any ordinary individual would foresee. Hence, with his lack of intent to execute perilous acts, it is relevant to a court conviction of manslaughter. The defendant and the victim or deceased were both addicts of drugs and on the evening of 16 September 1967 took LSD (Sixth Form Law, 2012).

The following day the defendant left the country leaving the victim in the hotel room with brain hemorrhaging and evidence of asphyxiation. The defendant was extradited back into the country and presented in court. He claimed that, after taking the drugs, they both experienced hallucinations. In addition, he claimed that he thought he was attacked by snakes resulting in injury of the victim (Sixth Form Law, 2012).

Hence, the jury accepted his account because he did not harbor any intent of causing bodily harm or killing the victim. He was convicted of manslaughter by the jury. The excuse of justification in this case is based on intent of the defendant. If it could be established through evidence of the initial intentions of the defendant before the uptake of the drugs, hence it could be established if the grounds of manslaughter were necessary. Hence, he was excused because he did not intend to cause bodily or grievous harm (Sixth Form Law, 2012).

There was a need to establish the intent of the defendant and the circumstances, which led to the demise of the victim. Additionally, it is evident that it was immaterial that the defendant did not harbor any intention of carrying the preceding actions after taking up the drugs. However, he understood that taking the drug would result in unwanted actions such as the cause of harm or loss of property.

References

CornellUniversityLawSchool. (2012). “Dixon v. United States (05-7053)-2003. Oral Argument April 25, 2006” Legal Information Institute Supreme Court Bulleting. Accessed from http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/05-7053

Sixth Form Law. (2012). “R v Lipman (1970) 1 QB 152” Cases. Accessed from http://sixthformlaw.info/02_cases/mod3a/cases_60_gen_def_automatism.htm

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Chile

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Table of Content

1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3
2. History ………………………………………………………………………………….3
3. Geography ………………………………………………………………………………4
4. Climate ………………………………………………………………………………….5
5. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………6
6. Works Cited …………………………………………………………………………….7

Chile

Chile is a country found on the continent of South America. This nation has the attribute of being the most elongated nation worldwide as it is 4300 kilometers long and 175 kilometers wide. There are an estimated 17,067,369 citizens. The majority of the ethnic groups being the white and white Amerindian, followed by the Mapuche and other indigenous groups. Spanish is the official language, but other languages such as German, English and Mapundungun, are also spoken. It has a profound history, a diverse climate and has an amazing landscape.

History

Originally, Chile was under the rule of people known as the Incas who came from the north and the Araucanos who were nomads. A European, Ferdinand Magella, who discovered a passageway in Chile, was the first outsider to enter this nation. Later, Spanish men entered the country and they were attracted by the farming prospective of the nation’s Central Valley. As a result, they took hold of Chile and made it its territory (Country studies 79). Chileans underwent immense suffering under Spanish rule. Most of them were turned into slaves, and after slavery was abolished in Spain, their lands were encroached, and their treasury drained. Its army was also taken over and militarized, making this their stronghold against their enemies, the Europeans and the Dutch. (All this happened in the 1500s). The cruel treatment of the Chileans led to a revolution by the people, as they wanted back their freedom.

In 1808, the Spanish Empire was taken over by Joseph, who was Napoleon’s brother and this stimulated the fight for independence. A resistance group by the name of Ferdinand was therefore formed on September 1810. This group later became the government and made a proclamation declaring Chile an independent nation from Spain (Country studies 36). Thus, Chile became a republic, and in memory of this, 18 September of every year is celebrated as its independence day. Afterwards, a rebellion that aimed for complete independence began, led by Jose Miguel Carerra as well as his male siblings Juan Jose and Luis Carerra. They enhanced the war with the Spanish, and on 12 February 1818, Chile became a fully Independent republic. However, in the 19^th Century there was a political revolt since the Chileans preserved a more of a social culture. Towards the middle of the 19^th Century, democratic rule was adopted, but in 1973, the military took over. Thousands of people were murdered, children tortured, and there was an economic meltdown. However, in the 1980s the government allowed more freedom of speech, freedom of trade unions and numerous political activities. In December 1993, Eduardo Frei Ruiz Tagle, Led its party, The Consertacion, to victory and became Chile’s president. He handed over the reigns of power in 2000 to communist Ricardo Lagos. In 2006, it elected its first female president, Michelle Bachelet Juria also from the same party. Currently it is led by Sebastian Pinera from the Rightist party, with each term of presidency covering four years (Country Studies 58).

Geography

Chile is located between the AndesMountains that cover the eastern side, and the Pacific Ocean that binds it on the western shore. This strategic location enables to have a vast and beautiful landscape, which makes it envy to most of the countries in its continent. It is a long and narrow coastal shaped country, extending 4,630 kilometers from north to south and 430 kilometers from west to east. It has a land area of 756, 950 square kilometers and lies between latitudes 17 degrees and 56degrees south and 66 degrees and 81 degrees west. Chile is endowed with offshore islands that are situated within the Pacific Ring of Fires. In addition, it has a vast forest cover, massive farming and grazing terrain, and a comparatively diminutive Central Valley that is host to the city of Santiago which is the most populated city and also very agriculturally productive. Its southern part has a series of volcanoes and lakes. Its southern coast contains a labyrinth of fjords, twisting peninsulas, inlets, canals and islands. It controls the Easter Island, Sala y Gomez and part of the RobinsonCrusoeIsland. Chile also has control of 1,250,000 kilometers of the Antarctica (McNairy 123). The northern part of Atacama is also found in this country and is endowed with valuable minerals such as copper and nitrates. Chile’s lowest point is at the Pacific Ocean, which are 0 meters and its highest point at Nevado Ojos del Salado at 6880 meters. It has 2.62% of arable land, where 0.46% is occupied by natural crops, and the rest is cultivated. Most of this land is however, irrigated due to the presence of the Atacama Desert. Chile’s breathe-taking landscape is however, exposed to high risks of tsunamis, earthquakes and active volcanism (Country Studies 27).

Climate

The climate of Chile is said to be extremely diverse. The desert is located in the north due to the presence of the Atacama Desert; a Mediterranean climate is experienced in the middle part, while on the EaterIsland a humid sub-tropical. On the east and southern part, oceanic climate, alpha tundra and glaciers are experienced. Chile experiences four seasons in a year. Summer is the first season experienced from December to February, autumn from March to May, winter from June and leading to the month of August, and the season of spring from September to November.

Factors, which control the types of climate found in Chile, are The Andes Mountains, which allows a variety of microclimates to grow within short distances. These climates combine with other climatic zones to form transition zones. The AndesMountains are divided into two main climatic regions known as the Dry Andes, and the second is known as the Wet Andes. The Pacific Anticyclone, the wintry Humboldt Current, the ChileanCoastRange, as well as the southern circumpolar low-pressure region also affect the climate found in Chile (Mcnair 89). The dry-arid climate in the Atacama is due to the Humboldt Current in addition to the Pacific anticyclone. This climate experiences rainfall of about 1 millimeter per year. The Mediterranean climate is due to the ChileanCoastRange that results in temperatures ranging from 7.5 to 19.5 degrees Celsius throughout the year and heavy rainfall. Here, rain falls between the first two months of the year that are the winter seasons, as well as the sixth and seventh months of the year. The temperate oceanic climate is due to the AndesMountains and causes temperatures to range from below 7.5 to 16.5 degrees Celsius (Burgan 126). Precipitation in the temperate oceanic climate takes place during the winter and summer months. This causes a lot of rainfall on the southern-facing mountain slopes.

Food

Being a thin country between mountains, its agriculture is limited to a small space and has to import some of the food eaten. However, due to its interaction with different cultures from Europe and Asia as well, much of its food is influenced by these cultures. Spanish, being the major European settler in the country has a bigger influence in the food eaten. Other cultures influencing the food are Italian, native Indians, and British as well. Other foods were incorporated because of the different cultures such as the national dish called porotos granados that combines native Indian and Spanish influence.

Despite its lack of big agricultural space, the country produces some of the various fine seafood that makes up a big part of the traditional plate. Additionally, between the mountains and Andes are spectacular vineyards that compare to fruits of the Mediterranean Europe. This provides a wide variety of fruits all people and travelers to enjoy. Additionally, wine is available for all people including the lower class since there are a huge variety of inexpensive fine wines from which to select. There are many restaurants for everybody especially in the capital of Santiago where it is hard to make out what is typical food due to the diversity of immigration. Restaurants range from German influence, Spanish, Chinese restaurants among others serving traditional dishes from various cultures.

In Chile, there are four meals in a day, starting with breakfast that commonly serves a toast of bread and tea. For those who want more than these, eggs, and even freshly squeezed juice is available. Lunch serves at around 1 pm, which is the main meal of the day. Hotels here offer well-priced specials as additions to their regular menu. Some of the regular meals for lunch include the ‘cazuela’ that is a traditional food serving potato, a piece of chicken or beef, corn and rice served with a clear broth. In the evening between 5pm and 7 pm, tea is served with deserts and sandwiches. Dinner mostly serves from 9 pm until midnight. The food hours reflect the working hours as well, where work starts at 9 am ending in the late evening.

Conclusion

The geographical location of Chile elevates it to an outstanding state for a country to visit. It is strategically placed landscape is just awesome for suite-seeing and for mountainous sports. Its diverse climate encourages livestock keeping, agriculture and a diversity of other economic activities, making it among the best places to settling South America. Its long history tells a story of struggle and freedom, thus seeing the determination of the Chileans. Chile is a nation one should not miss to visit when given an opportunity.

 

Work Cited

Foreign Relations. Country Studies, 2012. Accessed October 1, 2012 from:             http://countrystudies.us/chile/110.htm

Burgan, Michael. Chile. New York: Children’s Press, 2010. Print.

McNair, Sylvia. Chile. New York: Children’s Press, 2000. Print.

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Effect of Culture on Student Learning

A person’s method of learning describes the modes, methods, or strategies one uses to assist in learning tasks and organizing information. Individuals have different modes of learning For instance, some people are visual learners meaning that they emphasize on visual strategies and mental representations for understanding information. Others learn through cooperative learning strategies that involve working in small groups. These different styles of learning are influenced by various factors that shape them in their routine learning activities. Consequently, such factors characterize learning methods among students. One factor that influences learning among students is culture. Culture affects every aspect of learning for the students since it determines the effectiveness of the learning styles and methods utilized by teachers and instructors.

According to the Educational Research Service (ERS) (2003), culture is described as the set of ideas, values, attitudes, behaviors and traditions that exist within large groups of populace. Such components of culture are transferred from one generation to another and are thus resistant to change over time. Cultures vary across the world and locally. The diversity in cultures explains the level of understanding and educational comprehension among students of diverse culture. The mode of learning for American students can be varied from the mode of learning for other foreign students. Usually, in schools where culture is not considered, students from various backgrounds viewed as inattentive and daft are grouped for special education. Thus, it is important to understand different learning styles for different culture students.

The impact of culture in learning is evident in schools. Students’ dissimilar cultures have created imbalance between diversity and uniformity, which is constantly destructive to many students and teachers. Culture is a way of life and it has advocated for different beliefs and norms that are different from the norms and beliefs of the majority culture in schools. The clashes in cultures of the students cause students to clamber in school and yet if their individual strengths were recognized, would lead to success and a boost in esteem and confidence. Furthermore, if such cultural issues were addressed, it would lead to decreased discrimination, labeling, stereotyping of students with different, and minority cultures from the occupiers of the majority culture (Swartz, 2009).

Despite the diverse cultures in schools and other educational facilities, uniformity continues to dominate learning practices. This is because public elementary and high schools generally surmise what they deem to be the proper method of learning which is standardized for every student. Over the years, the education system still regards similar teaching methods due to the notion that all students are the same. Students utilize the same texts and learning materials and apply the same pace on the similar capacity of material. Teachers teach whole factions of students, availing comparable information at analogous time to every student (Sizer, 2004). Such teaching practices dictate that most schools lean towards uniformity disregarding cultural diversity.

Emphasizing on the above, such similar methods that teachers continue to utilize in schools despite the cultural diversity are culturally insensitive and considered traditional. Teachers utilizing such teaching styles do not attempt to learn about the diverse cultures in the classrooms. Usually, such teaching methods are because of the material taught in teacher preparation courses, which is never the best approach. These teaching practices have a negative effect on students since it jeopardizes and restricts the learning process of a student. Consequently, restricting a student’s learning will cause the student to experience feelings of denunciation, isolation and fretfulness. Such feelings can also cause teachers to become frustrated and unable to communicate to their students (Irvine, 2003).

Every student requires to be respected, have an opportunity to maximize his or her potential and benefit from the learning institution. There is the need to call for acknowledgement of cultural diversity in educational institutions. Doing so will lead to the creation of a balanced student atmosphere that will be determined with awareness to the various culture constituents rather than the efficiency of the prevailing teaching system. Furthermore, a balanced student environment will lead to positive cultural responsiveness and easier recognition of various cultural differences that will assist teachers. Consequently, embracing the various cultural differences among different students accrues to cohesion in the schools (Banks, 2004).

Cultural differences involve factors such as facial expressions, body language and physical gestures. Depending on one’s culture, these non-verbal cues have a great effect on student learning. For instance, students from Asian and Latin American cultures denote respect by circumventing the glance of authority personalities. Therefore, a teacher or a lecturer who is unfamiliar with such a norm might interpret the evasive eye contacts as disrespect. Additionally, American Indian students do not answer in front of classes since they are afraid of being assumed as braggarts. However, teachers that do not understand this norm find the student as inattentive or unmotivated (Koppelman & Goodhart, 2011).

Culture also influences attitudes regarding physical contact, whether it is a greeting or a hug. In America, students involve themselves individually and competitively in learning activities. Consequently, majority of Native American students engage in cooperative learning activities that involve incorporating groups in learning activities (Ingalls & Hammond, 2006). Additionally, some learning activities involve direct contact between students. For instance, Asian female friends often hold hands while men occasionally embrace each other in public. This is different from Americans who occasionally feel uncomfortable with such behavior. Therefore, if teachers do not put such norms into practice, students might be viewed as reluctant to participate.

Moreover, culture also dictates teaching practices in schools. This is because different cultures employ different teaching styles that familiarize with the students. Usually, teachers have a propensity to read a narrative in small sections. They avail information and then verify students’ comprehension with questions and discussions. However, this method could be dissimilar with American Indian students since they are taught to listen to all the information available and then arrive at a conclusion. Furthermore, teachers quiz students on novel skills they are learning in order to analyze a student’s degree of acquisition. However, American Indian students are educated to study through modeling and application. Therefore, it is exact to state that teaching practices cannot be constant for every student (Ingalls & Hammond, 2006).

The effects of culture on learning are numerous. However, such implications should motivate teachers to respond to such unresolved issues. The essential application for teachers to ensure effective learning is accommodation of cultural differences and learning styles. This means that teachers have to be aware of the different cultural backgrounds of their students. However, teachers require an in-depth knowledge regarding diverse learning styles in order to accommodate for the difference in culture (Irvine, 2003). This will enable them to develop fascinating learning experiences. Such learning experiences, on the other hand, will assist students to be able to employ their strengths to be successful. Additionally, accommodative learning experiences ensure the students adapt in their environments further increasing their chances of success since they are more comfortable with their learning locale.

Moreover, awareness of cultural differences enables teachers to cooperate and function together on various curriculums with a learning style viewpoint. This leads to selection of new materials, development of new discipline policies and prominence of questions regarding individual style and diversity. By adapting new teaching techniques, teachers will become motivated to create new methods of accommodating the needs of certain students in the classroom. Moreover, teachers will discover that focusing on learning styles would aid them in understanding whether a specific technique is successful. For instance, cooperative learning is successful since it allows different students to work together on a single objective.

According to Irvine (2003), the implication of being aware of a student’s culture and learning style assists teachers to assess and analyze their individual instructional practices and become responsive to providing diverse learning experiences. Improved instructional diversity will be advantageous for all the students regardless of culture. Additionally, teachers who are successful with culturally different students expound more on knowing about their students thus creating improved instructions that will greatly benefit the students based on their needs and preferences. Therefore, awareness of a student’s culture does not only involve analyzing the student’s biography but also incorporating the needs and wants of the student concerning cultural differences.

Moreover, for teachers to promote cultural infusion among students, they should be able to embrace the students’ diverse cultural characteristics. This method will enable students to be more open with their instructors and develop positive emotions regarding the classroom. Additionally, by appreciating the different cultures, the teachers will become culturally responsive by being knowledgeable about the various cultures. Embracing such cultural characteristics will lead to the development of new learning styles in response to different learning methods for the students. Furthermore, teachers will desist from becoming frustrated and be able to reach to their students (Irvine, 2003).

Teachers should also become flexible to devising teaching approaches that develop group-oriented classrooms (Irvine, 2003). Such academic groups enable students from different backgrounds to function together and increases cohesion among students in the classroom. Additionally, the classroom groups ensure that students cooperate positively with each other leading to the accomplishment of set tasks and activities. By working together, students are also able to know about each other’s cultures as well as foster new methods of learning in classrooms, which will increase their academic performances. Furthermore, the group oriented classrooms assist in avoiding focus on individual students, which draws out the collective ability of students working together.

Finally, teachers should understand the various cultural practices students adapt in their learning styles. Instead of publicly addressing such practices that may seem disrespectful, the teacher should exercise privacy and communicate with the student on the importance of participating in class. In addition, by privately conversing with the student, the teacher and the student are able to forge a student-teacher relationship that will allow the student comprehend the essence of participating in the classroom and also guide the teacher in understanding the student for improvement in cultural teaching practices.

With the impact of culture on learning being adequately focused on, it is necessary to focus on the improvement of teaching in schools by incorporating culturally responsive techniques. On a higher level, teacher preparation courses and training agencies in service delivery should focus on utilizing the solutions aforementioned to encourage cultural diversity and improve learning in schools. Without this sort of attention, the education system will continue experiencing consecutive drop out rates and low graduation rates in high school as well as an inconsistent representation of learners in special education courses.

 

References

Banks, J. A. (2004). Handbook of research on multicultural education. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.

Educational Research Service. (2003). Culture and learning. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.

Ingalls, L., & Hammond, H. (January 1, 2006). Teachers’ Cultural Knowledge and Understanding of American Indian Students and Their Families: Impact of Culture on a Child’s Learning. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 25, 1, 16-24.

Irvine, J. J. (2003). Educating teachers for diversity: Seeing with a cultural eye. New York: Teachers College Press.

Koppelman, K. L., & Goodhart, R. L. (2011). Understanding human differences: Multicultural education for a diverse America. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Sizer, T. R. (2004). Horace’s compromise: The dilemma of the American high school; the first report from a study of high schools. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin.

Swartz, E. (January 1, 2009). Diversity: Gatekeeping Knowledge and Maintaining Inequalities. Review of Educational Research, 79, 2, 1044-1083.Appendix

 

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Summary

Both “Ex-Basketball Player” by John Updike and “Living in Sin” by Adrienne Rich have many similarities. In this paper, I will address two similarities: the expectations human beings have in life and the extensive use of figurative language. In “Ex-Basket Ball Player”, the basketball player, Flick Webb was once a star player in his high school basketball team and it is expected that his fame would continue after high school. However, Flick does not progress significantly instead he has become a gas attendant at Berth’s garage, and his life seems to have come to a grinding halt. In the poem, “Living in Sin” the fairy tale of a woman who dreams of a stress free marriage full of perfection is cut short by the reality that marriage is not easy and requires love, hard work and determination between the couple to be successful. Consequently, both lives of these individuals are filled with emptiness and sorrow instead of their fantasy-filled imagination to become a reality they end up living lives contrary to this.

The theme of unfulfilled expectations is brought out clearly by the current conditions of both individuals. In “Ex-Basketball Player,” Flick is seen to hold on to his fantasies as he hangs out at Mae’s Luncheonette but still imagines himself being applauded, “Beyond her face toward applauding tiers.” The married woman also had the imagination of a fairy tale in, “Living in Sin,” “She thought the studio could keep itself,” in the first stanza, shows the woman’s mindset was not focused in working to keep the marriage to be the fairy tale she wanted. The fantasies of both characters have led them not to confront their current situation and instead they hold on to the past. They do little to move on and get a new focus in life far from the past.

Both poems use figurative language to give a clear description of the characters in the poems. Some of the figurative language used in the poems includes personification, shift and alliteration. The poem “The Ex-Basketball Player” makes use of personification in reference to “idiot pumps” also in the line “The ball loved Flick.” In the poem “Living in Sin,” where the way she bends in pain is personified, “Each separate stair would writhe under the milkman’s tramp.” Personification enables the reader to have a connection between an object that is distant and ideas to create an emotional connection and relate with the idea and sorrow of both personas.

Alliteration is used in both poems. In, “The Ex-Basketball Player”, alliteration is used in lines such as “loose and low” and “Checks oil and changes flats.” In the poem, “Living in sin” alliteration is used in the line “A piano with a Persian shawl.” Alliteration gives both poems an alternative rhythm to the poem and stresses the tone.

Shifts are used in the poem by John Updike, the first stanza talks about Flicks current situation. Stanza 3 shows a different Flick who was skilled in basketball, in high school. The following stanzas then change to show his depressing situation. In addition, in the poem by Adrienne Rich, shifts are seen in the first stanza where the thoughts of the persona are shown and then change occurs and the reality of her situation is seen in the consecutive stanzas. Shift is used in both poems to give distinction of two different situations and places. The distinction enables the reader to have background knowledge of the personas and understand their current situation. The outstanding similarities in both poems show the relationship between the themes of both poems in relation to the human character and the use of figurative language to give the reader an understanding.

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ESL Writing Assessment

Introduction

While all of educational evaluation challenges teachers and researchers, writing assessments of language ability are particularly challenging. The form and content of the test and the form and content of the student’s response all rely on words. Writing has several unique features that sharpen the challenge present in all language tests. First, the learning of written language is more closely affiliated with schooling than listening, speaking, or reading (Weigle, 2002, p. 4). Also, the ability to write well is associated more with the work of schooling and subsequent success inside and beyond the academy (The National Commission on Writing, The Neglected “R” & Writing: A Ticket to Work…Or a Ticket Out, A Survey of Business Leaders). Therefore, writing assessments have high consequences for not just students, but also for teachers, administrators, and other educational stakeholders. The need for teachers and researchers to get writing assessment right is great.

This is especially true for ESL (English as second language) students. ESL face challenges when it comes to placement in various institutions. The classroom setting offers a bigger and wider challenge to ESL students as writing proficiency is usually below standards in comparison to other students. Assessing ESL students for placement positions at various institutions should be responsible and reflective of students training. Writing placement tests have been criticized on several occasions for being strictly grammar oriented or multiple-choice papers that do not capture the writing composition proficiency of a student. However, there are different confounding aspects that result from using essays for the assessment of ESL students. Key to this is the use of essays is the absence of benchmark texts, lack of flawless and reliable results criteria and lack of quantitative dimensions for inter-rater consistency.

The aim of this essay is to provide and analyze the literature review on writing assessment in the context of ESL student tests in relation to the cognitive writing model. The essay will provide solutions on overcoming problems faced by ESL students when taking writing assessment tests due to low cognitive capabilities.

                     Theories of Writing Placement Assessment

Writing assessment for a long time has been among the most problematic areas in language evaluation and determination of students’ writing competence in a second language and overall competence in the language. The main problem in this issue is discovered to be the scorer himself. Personal characteristics of different scorers result in different evaluation of the same work, which becomes a problem, because a written work receives different scores and accurate evaluation becomes nearly impossible (Godshalk, Swineford &Coffman, 1966, pp. 1-5). In psychometric scoring the differences in results given by two different scorers are seen as potential errors in overall evaluation of a written work. This means that is scoring system maintains errors in evaluation of the results it needs to be improved and as a result needs further training and changes. The differences in evaluation of two scorers of the same work means that they due to personal differences think differently about main features of the essay, on which their scoring is based. The literature review states that it is difficult to determine why some scorers are easier to find agreement on the scoring and work evaluation than the others. However, there is a hypothesis that “proficiency in a psychometric scoring task may manifest itself the cognitive behaviors of scorers” (Wolfe, Kao, Ranney, 1998, p. 466). The research done by Pula and Huot determined that understanding of scoring rubrics of the essay could be vital in difference of evaluation of the same work checked by different scorers, which directly depends on scorers’ cognition (Wolfe, Kao, Ranney, 1998, p. 467). Also, according to Vaughan (1991) individual differences can be a result in different scoring results of the same work. The studies of Pula and Huot (1993) and studies of Vaughan helped to determine main factors of scorer’s differences, which result in differences of scoring results in the process of evaluation of the same work (Wolfe, Kao, Ranney, 1998, p. 468).

Crusan (2002) states that there are two types of assessments, the direct and indirect assessments. A direct test seeks to evaluate a comprehensive understanding of language using an essay. This tests students’ of language communication within a given context. The results are evaluated according to various rubrics of the writing assignment, such as maintenance of proper format and vocabulary, sentence structure, grammar, etc, when every rubric brings certain points to the writer. On the other hand, in indirect assessment, the proficiency of students on specific language areas such as vocabulary, grammar, comprehension or reading is tested. Multiple questions test is usually used in indirect assessment and is evaluated according to number of correct answers in the questions.

According to the theory of cognitive vitality of scoring the combination of the two: direct and indirect methods are used in order to isolate specific components of a language and at the same time to evaluate them (Wolfe, Kao, Ranney, 1998, p. 468). Validity is recognized as one of the most important aspects of psychological assessment and testing. According to Messick’s (1989) unified theory, the main issue is not when one test is valid or not, but when the test scores and the inference of the test user is designed in such way that it makes the test valid or invalid.

However, the most productive and accurate alternative of a method, which involves students’ writing to be read by independent readers, is an indirect testing of writing abilities, which involves testing of grammar and its use in writing (Diederich, 1974). Various writing tests with multiple choice questions, open-ended questions and written essays can be a part of a placement test.

                                              Literature Review: Case Studies

The literature abounds with arguments for and against different scoring, specifically the direct and indirect methods. These are some of the case studies on why there are differences in scoring due to the cognition of scorers or correctors:

Vaughan (1991) study that employed think-aloud task to examine the thinking patterns of experienced essay scorers found out that scorers have an individualistic approach. Because each scorer has a varied set of experiences, these differences of opinion may become a troubling source of test-irrelevant variance – leading to both unreliable measures and invalid interpretations of test scores by creating a mismatch between the information provided to test result users through the test manual and the information provided by test scores.

Pula & Hout (1993), in a think-aloud study, found that while novice and experienced raters considered the same criteria, their reading process was quite different. To begin, novice raters in his study tended to make more comments as they read, whereas expert raters made more comments as they had finished reading. Compared to novice raters, expert raters also made a greater percentage of personal comments.  The reason for these differences, the study shows, is that expert raters already knew what to evaluate in a composition and had already developed a strategy for rating.  These researchers identified three experiential factors that differentiate expert from novice scorers: (1) personal background; (2) professional training; and (3) work experience or a scorer`s previous experiences.

Freedmen & Calfee (1989), created an information-processing model of essay scoring.  From the information processing perspective, present a model where raters: () read and comprehend text, (2) evaluate the text, and (3) articulate their evaluation (Figure 1).  So in this model, it has to be noted, raters create a text image after reading and comprehending, and it is that text image, rather than the text itself, that raters evaluate and store impressions of.  While acknowledging the possibility that rating could be a linear process, Freedman and Calfee believe that it is more likely one that is recursive, where chunks of text are evaluated as they read and comprehend.  The monitor in their model allows raters to revise their evaluations as they read and evaluate more pieces of text.

Figure 1.  Freedman and Calfee`s (1989, p.92) Model of the Rating Process

 

 

Regardless of which of these views is more appropriate for the purpose of knowing why there are differences in scoring, these studies emphasize that it is important to understand how the thinking processes and thus cognition that scorers use to evaluate decisions impact the task of scoring writing and the writing process.

Critical Analysis

For years, writing assessment has been a highly problematic area and researches have been trying to develop a method, which would assure accurate results of writing assessment evaluation (Godshalk, Swineford, & Coffman, 1966, 1-5). Variability in evaluating writing assessments especially due to corrector cognition and scores has been perceived and addressed differently by the measurement and composition communities (Broad, 2003; Huot, 2002; Moss, 1996; Weigle, 1998; White, 1993). Corrector cognition variability, for example, has often been seen by the measurement community as a “source of measurement error” that lowers the reliability and, hence, the validity of essay tests.

Diederich, French, and Carlton (1961) tried to establish the suitability of using direct assessment methods in testing the language proficiency of students. In the study 300 essays were read and assessed by 53 judges. Surprisingly, the study established that 94 % of the essays had been awarded seven different scores. This clearly shows that it is not always guaranteed that the quality of writing can be determined objectively. If one essay ended up being awarded several scores by different markers, then it proves the inadequacy of relying on the essay as the sole assessment method.

Such studies as have been reported in the literature (Bacha, 2001; Carr, 2000; Schoonen, 2005) used quantitative methods to examine essay scores but did not consider if, and how, the rating scale influences corrector decision-making behavior and cognition (Frederiksen, 1992;Freedman & Calfee, 1983). In addition, the few models of essay rating processes that have been developed (Freedman & Calfee, 1983; Homburg, 1984; Ruth & Murphy, 1988) do not say much about how the scoring method mediates the rating process (Wolfe et al., 1997). As a result, little is known about how correctors arrive at judgments about writing quality and what part of scorer cognition play in this process. Such information is crucial for designing, selecting, and improving scoring methods and corrector cognition training as well as for the validation of ESL writing assessments.

White (1993) argued that differences between correctors in opinion about the quality of essays are, like disagreements about the value of works of art, legitimate and more valuable than absolute agreement, because “they combine to bring us nearer to accurate evaluation than would simple agreement” (p. 99). White called instead for the use of “consensus score”, which, he argued, “can yield useful measurement, which reflects the social process of judgment and offers sound statistical data” (p. 99; Broad, 2003; Huot, 2002; Moss et al., 1992).

In addition, new measurement models such as Generalizability theory (G-theory) and Multi-faceted Rasch measurement (MFRM) may offer a partial answer to the conflict between reliability and validity requirements in ESL writing assessment since these models expect variation in scores across correctors cognition as well as across examinees (Brennan, 2001; Kozaki, 2004; North, 2000; Weigle, 1998). Weigle (1998), for example, pointed out that the Multi-faceted Rasch model considers corrector cognition beneficial, rather than a hindrance to writing assessments. The Rasch model, however, requires that raters be self-consistent in order to allow the mathematical modeling and compensation for predictable variations in rater severity (Kozaki, 2004; Linacre, 1994; Weigle, 1998). As discussed in the introduction above, this essay aimed to provide solutions on overcoming problems faced by ESL students when taking writing assessment tests due to low cognitive capabilities.

To this end, I may propose two solutions for joining the direct and indirect assessments to have good and reasonable score for students.  My idea is that, in the direct assessment, the students cannot get reliable score because of the different cognition of corrector. Also, in indirect assessment, we cannot measure student’s ability because the student may memorize the grammar and rules of writing. Thus, there are two solutions which are to mix two assessments to measure the student’s ability by mixing the indirect and direct assessments and the second one, is to have the accurate score from the corrector. This combination of the two, direct and indirect methods of writing assessment for the ESL students is vital in maintenance of proper results, which influences proper placement of the students. Besides, validity of the test format, both indirect and direct, is also helpful in evaluating language competence of the ESL students properly and accurately.

Implication for Teaching

This study explored and compared the literature on writing assessment in the context of ESL student tests in relation to the cognitive writing model.  Further, it provided two solutions on overcoming the problems faced by ESL students when taking writing assessment tests due to low cognitive capabilities. Theoretically, findings from the essay can help clarify the role of scoring method and rater cognition in ESL writing assessments. Such information can add to our understanding of factors contributing to variability in ESL writing test scores and suggest methods to enhance the reliability, validity, and fairness of inferences and decisions based on such scores.

At the teaching level, the essay has generated information to enhance the usefulness of writing assessments. Information from this study can be useful for making decisions about corrector cognition training and the design, selection, and improvement of scoring methods in large-scale and classroom ESL writing assessments. For instance, identifying scoring methods that require the least amount of cognition training could significantly reduce the cost of large-scale writing rating. In addition, by examining the effects of different scoring methods on the performance of raters with different levels of experience, findings from this study can help clarify which scoring methods work better for different corrector populations.  Finally, information about corrector cognition and corrector effects can help monitor and account for these effects so that the reliability, validity and fairness of writing assessment results can be improved in the future.

                                         Conclusion

ESL students encounter various challenges when it comes to writing assessment. Development of proper writing assessment, training of the correctors’ cognition and modernization of the process and format of the writing assessment along with scoring system determine accurate evaluation of writing assessment. They also result in improvement of language abilities of ESL students, when they are placed to proper language study groups.

 

 

References

Armstrong, W. B. (1995, May). Validating placement tests in the community college: The role of test scores, biographical data, and grading concerns. Paper presented at the 35th Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research, Boston, MA.

Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Bailey, K. M. (1998). Learning about language assessment: Dilemmas, decisions, and directions. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Breland, H. M. (1983). The direct assessment of writing skill: A measurement review (College Board Report No. 83-6, ETS RR No. 83-32). New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

Conlan, G. (1986). “Objective” measures of writing ability. In: K. L. Greenberg, H. S. Wiener, & R. A. Donovan (Eds.), Writing assessment: Issues and strategies. New York: Longman.

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Crusan (2002). An assessment of ESL writing placement Assessment. Assessing Writing 8 (2002) 17–30

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Devine, J., Railey, K., & Boshoff, P. (1993). The implications of Cognitive Models in L1 and L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 2: 203-225.

Diederich, P., French, J. W.  & Carlton, S. (1961). Factors in Judgment of writing ability. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Services.

Flavell, J. (1985). Cognitive Development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice-Hall Inc.

Gaudiani, C. (1981). Teaching Writing in the Foreign Language Curriculum. Washington, D.C.:    Center for Applied Linguistics

Haswell, R. H. (1998). Searching for Kiyoko: Bettering mandatory ESL writing placement. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7, 133–174.

Hudson, S. A. (1982). An empirical investigation of direct and indirect measures of writing. Report of the 1980–81 Georgia Competency Based Education Writing Assessment Project — 1981. ERIC: ED #205993.

Kellogg, R. T. (1994). The Psychology of Writing. New York: Oxford.

McNenny, G. (2001). Writing instruction and the post-remedial university: Setting the scene for the mainstreaming debate in basic writing. In: G. McNenny & S. H. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Mainstreaming basic writers: Politics and pedagogies of access (pp. 1–15). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Wolfe E., Kao C., Ranney M. (1998), Cognitive Differences in Proficient and Nonproficient Essay Scorers, Written Communication, Vol. 15, No. 4, October 1998, pp. 465-492, Sage Publications, Inc.

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